Thermodyna

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Iannclark Antolen Allan Baterna

Edwarf Castil Fedil Curilan

Arnel Cale
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Mark anthony Andebur

Junhil Alba
 Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics is a science and, more importantly, an
engineering tool used to describe processes that involve
changes in temperature, transformation of energy, and
the relationships between heat and work. It can be
regarded as a generalization of an enormous body of
empirical evidence1.1. It is extremely general: there are
no hypotheses made concerning the structure and type
of matter that we deal with. It is used to describe the
performance of propulsion systems, power generation
systems, and refrigerators, and to describe fluid flow,
combustion, and many other phenomena.
• A thermodynamic system is a quantity of matter of fixed
identity, around which we can draw a boundary (see Figure
1.3 for an example). The boundaries may be fixed or
moveable. Work or heat can be transferred across the
system boundary. Everything outside the boundary is the
surroundings.
• When working with devices such as engines it is often
useful to define the system to be an identifiable volume with
flow in and out. This is termed a control volume. An
example is shown in Figure 1.5.
• A closed system is a special class of system with
boundaries that matter cannot cross. Hence the principle of
the conservation of mass is automatically satisfied
whenever we employ a closed system analysis. This type of
system is sometimes termed a control mass.
• Figure 1.3: Piston (boundary) and gas (system)
• Figure 1.4: Boundary around electric motor (system)
•
• Figure 1.5: Sample control volume
 Figure 1.3: Piston (boundary) and gas (system)

Figure 1.4: Boundary around electric motor (system)

Figure 1.5: Sample control volume

• The thermodynamic state of a system is defined by
specifying values of a set of measurable properties
sufficient to determine all other properties. For fluid
systems, typical properties are pressure, volume and
temperature. More complex systems may require the
specification of more unusual properties. As an example,
the state of an electric battery requires the specification
of the amount of electric charge it contains.

• Properties may be extensive or intensive. Extensive

properties are additive. Thus, if the system is divided into
a number of sub-systems, the value of the property for
the whole system is equal to the sum of the values for
the parts. Volume is an extensive property. Intensive
properties do not depend on the quantity of matter
present. Temperature and pressure are intensive
properties.
 Specific properties
are extensive properties per unit mass and
are denoted by lower case letters. For example:

• The state of a system in which properties have definite,

unchanged values as long as external conditions are
unchanged is called an equilibrium state.
• Figure 1.6: Equilibrium [Mechanical Equilibrium]
[Thermal Equilibrium]
• A system in thermodynamic equilibrium satisfies:
• mechanical equilibrium (no unbalanced forces)
• thermal equilibrium (no temperature differences)
• chemical equilibrium.
Mechanical Equilibrium

Thermal Equilibrium
Figure 1.6: Equilibrium
The fathers of thermodynamics.
Sadi Carnot (1796-1832).
Analizing the steam engines Carnot became aware that
exists a "inefficiency" changing the heat in mechanical work
an was, thus, the discoverer of the second law of
thermodynamics.
Formulating the concept of a steam engine efficiency, Carnot
established the basics concepts for any transformation.
In the year 1824 he published his " Reflexions sur la
Puissance Motrice du Feu," in which he made a first attempt
to express the principles involved in the application of heat to
the production of mechanical effect.
Carnot had accepted the "caloric theory" in conformity with
it the heat was a non-material fluid which can pass from a
body to another.
As a water wheel worked by the water descent on the
paddles, so the steam engine worked by the heat descent
from a hot region (boiler) to a cooler region (condenser).
As all the water returned to the river also the "caloric" (Carnot
thinked) keeps after to have worked in the steam engine.
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889).
Joule was son of a beer-grower in Manchester and could made his
experiments in the laboratory in the father's manufactury. In the forties
of 1800 he proved that the heat was a form of energy and also proved
the equivalence of mechanical energy and heat.
First consequence: the heat was'nt a non material fluid. The concept
of "caloric" was wrong.

Diagram of the most famous Joule experiment: the conversion of

mechanical energy in heat.
The descent of the weight run the turbine-paddle in the water. The
water temperature increases by the friction.
Comparing the mechanical work made by the descent of the weight
with the temperature increase of water,
Joule proved the equivalence of mechanical energy and heat.
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) - 1824 - 1870 -

In the year 1846 Kelvin became professor of Natural

Philosophy at The University of Glasgow.
Here, in 1847, meets Joule. This event was very interesting
an Kelvin began to study the heat and his conversion in
mechanical work.
Joule had the opinion that the Carnot idea on the heat
preservation was wrong.
In 1851 Kelvin published the article "On the Dynamical
Theory of Heat" that advanced the hypothesis that the
theory of Carnot was not contray to the work of Joule.
Rudolf Clausius (1822 - 1888).
Rudolph Gottlieb, after named Clausius, continued the
study initiaded by Carnot, pursued by Joule and Lord
Kelvin.
Clausius understood that the divergences between
Carnot and Joule could be overcome. He got rid of the
cocncept of "caloric" and he assumed that the heat
could be explained by the conduct of the elementary
particles of matter.
Clausius also gave us the extremely important
principle: It is impossible for a self acting machine,
unaided, to transfer heat from one body at a low
temperature to another having a higher temperature.
Ludwig Boltzman (1844 - 1906).
Boltzman was the first man to understand the true
nature of naturals transformations and he made
this before the general acceptance of the atoms
existence.
His work wouldn't understood. Boltzman
overwhelmed with grief killed oneself.
Carnot reached to the thermodynamics studying
the steam engine, Boltzman made out the
thermodynamics from the opposite side i.e. from
the atoms.
Following research and experiments attested that
Boltzman was right and now he is universally
acknowledged as one of greatest physicists in the
history of science.
 First Law
• There exists for every system a property called energy,
. The system energy can be considered as a sum of
internal energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, and
chemical energy.

– Like the Zeroth Law, which defined a useful property,

``temperature,'' the First Law defines a useful property called
``energy.''
– The two new terms (compared to what you have seen in physics
and dynamics, for example) are the internal energy and the
chemical energy. For most situations in this class, we will
neglect the chemical energy. We will generally not, however,
neglect the internal energy, . It arises from the random or
disorganized motion of molecules in the system, as shown in
Figure 2.1. Since this molecular motion is primarily a function of
temperature, the internal energy is sometimes called ``thermal
energy.''
Figure 2.1: Random motion is the physical basis for internal energy
• The internal energy, , is a function of the
state of the system. Thus , or , or . Recall
that for pure substances the entire state
of the system is specified if any two
properties are specified. (We will discuss
the equations that relate the internal
energy to these other variables as the
course progresses.)
• The change in energy of a system is
equal to the difference between the heat
added to the system and the work done
by the system,
Formulas:

                                                                            
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is a general principle which places
constraints upon the direction of heat transfer and the attainable efficiencies
of heat engines. In so doing, it goes beyond the limitations imposed by the
first law of thermodynamics. It's implications may be visualized in terms of
the waterfall analogy.

The maximum efficiency which can be achieved is the Carnot efficiency.

 Second Law: Heat Engines
Second Law of Thermodynamics: It is impossible to extract an amount
of heat QH from a hot reservoir and use it all to do work W . Some
amount of heat QC must be exhausted to a cold reservoir. This
precludes a perfect heat engine.
This is sometimes called the "first form" of the second law, and is
referred to as the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law.
 Second Law: Refrigerator
Second Law of Thermodynamics: It is not possible for heat to flow from a
colder body to a warmer body without any work having been done to
accomplish this flow. Energy will not flow spontaneously from a low
temperature object to a higher temperature object. This precludes a
perfect refrigerator. The statements about refrigerators apply to air
conditioners and heat pumps, which embody the same principles.
This is the "second form" or Clausius statement of the second law.
Second Law: Entropy
Second Law of Thermodynamics: In any cyclic process the
entropy will either increase or remain the same.

Since entropy gives information about the evolution of an isolated system

with time, it is said to give us the direction of "time's arrow" . If snapshots of
a system at two different times shows one state which is more disordered,
then it could be implied that this state came later in time. For an isolated
system, the natural course of events takes the system to a more disordered
(higher entropy) state.
Carnot Cycle
The most efficient heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle, consisting of
two isothermal processes and two adiabatic processes. The Carnot
cycle can be thought of as the most efficient heat engine cycle allowed
by physical laws. When the second law of thermodynamics states that
not all the supplied heat in a heat engine can be used to do work, the
Carnot efficiency sets the limiting value on the fraction of the heat which
can be so used.
In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the processes involved in
the heat engine cycle must be reversible and involve no change in
entropy. This means that the Carnot cycle is an idealization, since no
real engine processes are reversible and all real physical processes
involve some increase in entropy.
 The temperatures in
the Carnot efficiency
expression must be
expressed in Kelvins.

The conceptual value of the Carnot cycle is that it establishes the maximum
possible efficiency for an engine cycle operating between TH and TC. It is not a
practical engine cycle because the heat transfer into the engine in the
isothermal process is too slow to be of practical value. As Schroeder puts it
"So don't bother installing a Carnot engine in your car; while it would increase
your gas mileage, you would be passed on the highway by pedestrians."
Entropy and the Carnot Cycle

Using these two expressions together

 If we take Q to represent heat added to the system, then heat taken from the
system will have a negative value. For the Carnot cycle

which can be generalized as an integral around a reversible cycle

For any part of the heat engine cycle, this can be used to define a change in
entropy S for the system
or in differential form at any point in the cycle

For any irreversible process, the efficiency is less than that of the Carnot cycle.
This can be associated with less heat flow to the system and/or more heat flow
out of the system. The inevitable result is

Any real engine cycle will result in more entropy given to the
environment than was taken from it, leading to an overall net increase in
entropy.
Thank you