2.

4 Base Excitation
• Important class of vibration analysis
– Preventing excitations from passing
from a vibrating base through its mount
into a structure
• Vibration isolation
– Vibrations in your car
– Satellite operation
– Disk drives, etc.

© D. J. Inman
1/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 FBD of SDOF Base Excitation
System Sketch
System FBD
x(t) m
m
k c

k ( x  y ) c(x  y )
y(t) base

 F =-k (x-y)-c(x -y )=mx

mx+cx + kx = cy + ky (2.61)
© D. J. Inman
2/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 SDOF Base Excitation (cont)
Assume: y (t )  Y sin(t ) and plug into Equation(2.61)
mx+cx + kx = cY cos(t ) + kY sin(t ) (2.63)
         
harmonic forcing functions
2 2V
For a car,  
 
The steady-state solution is just the superposition of
the two individual particular solutions (system is linear).
 f0 c   f0 s
x +2n x + n2 x = 2nY cos(t ) + n2Y sin(t ) (2.64)
         
© D. J. Inman
3/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Particular Solution (sine term)
With a sine for the forcing function,

x +2n x + n2 x =f 0 s sin t

x ps  As cos t  Bs sin t  X s sin(t  s )
where Use rectangular form to
make it easier to add
2n f 0 s
As  the cos term
(   )   2n 
2 2 2 2
n

(   ) f 0 s
2 2
Bs  n

(   )   2n 
2 2 2 2
n
© D. J. Inman
4/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Particular Solution (cos term)
With a cosine for the forcing function, we showed

x +2n x + n2 x =f 0c cos t

x pc  Ac cos t  Bc sin t  X c cos(t  c )
where
(   ) f 0c
2 2
Ac  n

(   )   2n 
2 2 2 2
n

2n f 0c
Bc 
(   )   2n 
2 2 2 2
n
© D. J. Inman
5/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Magnitude X/Y
Now add the sin and cos terms to get the
magnitude of the full particular solution

f0c2  f02s (2 )2   n2

X    nY
(   )  2 n  ( n2   2 )2  2 n 
2 2 2 2 2
n

where f0c  2 nY and f0 s   n2Y

1  (2 r)2
if we define r    n this becomes X Y (2.70)
(1  r )  2 r 
2 2 2

X 1  (2 r)2
 (2.71)
(1  r )  2 r 
2
Y 2 2

© D. J. Inman
6/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 The relative magnitude plot
of X/Y versus frequency ratio: Called the
Displacement Transmissibility
40
 =0.01
30  =0.1
 =0.3
 =0.7
20
X/Y (dB)

10

-10

-20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency ratio r
Figure 2.13
© D. J. Inman
7/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
From the plot of relative Displacement
Transmissibility observe that:
• X/Y is called Displacement Transmissibility Ratio
• Potentially severe amplification at resonance
• Attenuation for r > sqrt(2) Isolation Zone
• If r< sqrt(2) transmissibility decreases with
damping ratio Amplification Zone
• If r >> 1 then transmissibility increases with
damping ratio Xp~2Y/r

© D. J. Inman
8/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
Next examine the Force Transmitted to the
mass as a function of the frequency ratio
FT   k ( x  y )  c( x  y )  mx
From FBD
At steady state, x(t )  X cos(t   ),
so x =- X cos(t   )
 2

x(t) m

FT  m X  k r X
2 2
k
FT
c

y(t) base
© D. J. Inman
9/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Plot of Force Transmissibility (in dB)
versus frequency ratio
40
 =0.01
30  =0.1
 =0.3
 =0.7
20
F/kY (dB)

10

-10

-20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency ratio r
© D. J. Inman
Figure 2.14
10/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Figure 2.15 Comparison between force
and displacement transmissibility

Force
Transmissibility

Displacement
Transmissibility

© D. J. Inman
11/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Example 2.4.1: Effect of speed
on the amplitude of car vibration

© D. J. Inman
12/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
Model the road as a sinusoidal input to
base motion of the car model
Approximation of road surface:
y(t)  (0.01 m)sin  bt
 1   hour   2 rad 
 b  v(km/hr)        0.2909v rad/s
 0.006 km   3600 s   cycle 
 b (20km/hr) = 5.818 rad/s
From the data give, determine the frequency and
damping ratio of the car suspension:
k 4  10 4 N/m
n    6.303 rad/s (  1 Hz)
m 1007 kg
c 2000 Ns/m
=   0.158
© D. J. Inman
2 km 2 4  10 4

N/m 1007 kg 
13/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
From the input frequency, input amplitude,
natural frequency and damping ratio use
equation (2.70) to compute the amplitude of
the response:
 b 5.818
r 
 6.303

1  (2 r)2
X Y
(1  r 2 )2  (2 r)2

1  2(0.158)(0.923)
2

 0.01 m   0.0319 m
1  0.923   2 0.158 0.923
2 2 2

What happens as the car goes faster? See Table 2.1.

© D. J. Inman
14/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Example 2.4.2: Compute the force
transmitted to a machine through base
motion at resonance

From (2.77) at r =1:

1/ 2
FT  1  (2 ) 2
kY
  FT  1  4 2
kY  (2 )2  2
c 900
From given m, c, and k:   
2 km 2 40, 000  3000
 0.04

From measured excitation Y = 0.001 m:

kY (40, 000 N/m)(0.001 m)
FT  1  4 2  1  4(0.04) 2  501.6 N
2 2(0.04)
© D. J. Inman
15/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
2.5 Rotating
Unbalance
• Gyros
• Cryo-coolers
• Tires m0

• Washing machines e
Machine of total mass m i.e. m0
included in m t

e = eccentricity k
mo = mass unbalance c

 = rotation frequency


© D. J. Inman
16/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Rotating Unbalance (cont)
Rx
What force is imparted on the
 m0
structure? Note it rotates
e
with x component:

Ry xr  e sin  r t
 ax  xr  e r2 sin  r t

From sophomore dynamics,

Rx  m0 a x  mo er2 sin    mo er2 sin r t

R y  m0 a y   mo er2 cos   mo er2 cos r t

© D. J. Inman
17/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Rotating Unbalance (cont)
The problem is now just like any other SDOF
system with a harmonic excitation
m0e2sin(t)
mx  cx  kx  mo er sin r t
  2
(2.82)
x(t)
mo 2
or x  2n x   x  er sin r t
2
n
m m
k
c Note the influences on the
forcing function (we are assuming that
the mass m is held in place in the y direction as
indicated in Figure 2.18)
© D. J. Inman
18/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Rotating Unbalance (cont)
• Just another SDOF oscillator with a
harmonic forcing function
• Expressed in terms of frequency ratio r

x p (t )  X sin(r t   ) (2.83)
2
mo e r
X (2.84)
m (1  r 2 ) 2   2 r  2

 2 r 
  tan 1
2 
(2.85)
 1  r 
© D. J. Inman
19/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Figure 2.20: Displacement magnitude vs
frequency caused by rotating unbalance

© D. J. Inman
20/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
Example 2.5.1:Given the deflection at resonance (0.1m), 
= 0.05 and a 10% out of balance, compute e and the amount of added
mass needed to reduce the maximum amplitude to 0.01 m.

At resonance r = 1 and
mX 1 1 0.1 m 1
   10   10  e  0.1 m
m0 e 2 2(0.05) e 2

Now to compute the added mass, again at resonance;

m X 
   10 Use this to find m so that X is 0.01:
m0 0.1 m

m  m  0.01 m  m  m
   10   100  m  9m
m0  0.1 m  (0.1)m
Here m0 is 10%m or 0.1m
© D. J. Inman
21/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
Example 2.5.2 Helicopter rotor unbalance
Given
Fig 2.21
k  1  10 5 N/m
mtail  60 kg
mrot  20 kg
Fig 2.22
m0  0.5 kg
 = 0.01

Compute the deflection at

1500 rpm and find the rotor
speed at which the deflection is maximum

© D. J. Inman
22/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
Example 2.5.2 Solution
The rotating mass is 20 + 0.5 or 20.5. The stiffness is provided by the
Tail section and the corresponding mass is that determined in Example
1.4.4. So the system natural frequency is

k 105 N/m
n    46.69 rad/s
m 60 kg
m  tail 20.5 +
3 3
The frequency of rotation is

rev min 2 rad

r  1500 rpm = 1500  157 rad/s
min 60 s rev
157 rad/s
 r  3.16
49.49 rad/s

© D. J. Inman
23/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
Now compute the deflection at r =
3.16 and  =0.01 using eq (2.84)
m0 e r2
X
m (1  r 2 ) 2  (2 r ) 2

 0.5 kg   0.15 m   3.16 

2

  0.004 m
20.5 kg
 1  (3.16)    2(0.01)(3.16) 
2 2 2

At around r = 1, the max deflection occurs:

rad rev 60 s
r  1   r  49.69 rad/s = 49.69  474.5 rpm
s 2 rad min
At r = 1:

X
 0.5 kg   0.15 m  1
 0.183 m or 18.3 cm
20.5 kg 2(0.01)
© D. J. Inman
24/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 2.6 Measurement Devices
• A basic transducer
used in vibration
measurement is the
accelerometer.
• This device can be  F =-k (x-y )-c(x -y )=mx
modeled using the  mx = -c( x  y ) - k ( x  y )
base equations (2.86) and (2.61)
developed in the
previous section Here, y(t) is the measured
response of the structure
© D. J. Inman
25/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Base motion applied to
measurement devices
Let z (t )  x(t )  y (t ) (2.87) :

mz  cz (t )  kz (t )  mb2Y cos bt (2.88)
Z r2
  (2.90)
Y (1  r 2 ) 2  (2 r ) 2 Accelerometer
and
 2 r 
  tan 1  2 
(2.91)
 1 r 
These equations should be familiar
from base motion.
Here they describe measurement!
Strain Gauge
© D. J. Inman
26/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Magnitude and sensitivity
plots for accelerometers.
Effect of damping on
proportionality constant

Fig 2.27

Fig 2.26
Magnitude plot showing
Regions of measurement
In the accel region, output voltage is
nearly proportional to displacement
© D. J. Inman
27/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 2.7 Other forms of damping

These various other forms of damping are all nonlinear. They can
be compared to linear damping by the method of “equivalent viscous
damping” discussed next. A numerical treatment of the exact response
is given in section 2.9.
© D. J. Inman
28/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
The method of equivalent viscous
damping: consists of comparing the energy
dissipated during one cycle of forced response
Assume a stead state resulting from a harmonic
input and compute the energy dissipated per one cycle
xss  X sin  t
The energy per cycle for a viscously damped system is
2 /  2 / 
dx
E   Fd dx   cx dt   cx 2 dt (2.99)
0
dt 0

xss  X sin t  x   X cos t 

2 / 

   X cos t  dt   c X 2
2
E  c (2.101)
0
© D. J. Inman
29/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Next compute the energy dissipated
per cycle for Coulomb damping:
2 / 
E   mg 
0
   mg
sgn( x ) xdt

 /2 3 / 2 2
  mgX (  cos udu  
0  /2
cos udu  
3 / 2
cos udu )  4  mgX

Here we let u = t and du =dt and split up the

integral according to the sign changes in velocity.
Next compare this energy to that of a viscous system:
4  mg
 ceq X  4 mgX  ceq 
2
(2.105)
 X
This yields a linear viscous system dissipating the same amount of
energy per cycle.
© D. J. Inman
30/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
Using the equivalent viscous damping
calculations, each of the systems in Table 2.2
can be approximated by a linear viscous system

In particular, ceq can be used to derive

amplitude expressions. However, as
indicated in Section 2.8 and 2.9 the response
can be simulated numerically to provide
more accurate magnitude and
response information.

© D. J. Inman
31/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Hysteresis: an important concept
characterizing damping
• A plot of displacement
versus spring/damping
force for viscous
damping yields a loop
• At the bottom is a stress
strain plot for a system
with material damping
of the hysteretic type
• The enclosed area is
equal to the energy lost
per cycle

© D. J. Inman
32/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
The measured area yields the energy
dissipated. For some materials, called
hysteretic this is
E   k  X 2
(2.120)
Here the constant , a measured quantity is called
the hysteretic damping constant, k is the stiffness
and X is the amplitude.

Comparing this to the viscous energy yields:

k
ceq 


© D. J. Inman
33/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
Hysteresis gives rise to the
concept of complex stiffness
Substitution of the equivalent damping coefficient
and using the complex exponential to describe a
harmonic input yields:
k
mx  x  n2 x  F0e jt

Assuming x(t )  Xe jt and x (t )  Xje jt
yields
mx(t )  k (1  j  ) x(t )  F0e jt
   
complex stiffness

© D. J. Inman
34/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 2.8 Numerical Simulation and
Design
• Four things we can do computationally to help
solve, understand and design vibration
problems subject to harmonic excitation
• Symbolic manipulation
• Plotting of the time response
• Solution and plotting of the time response
• Plotting magnitude and phase

© D. J. Inman
35/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Symbolic Manipulation
Let

 n2   2 2 n   f0 
A 2
and x 
 2 n  n    0
2

What is

An  A 1 x

This can be solved using Matlab, Mathcad or Mathematica

© D. J. Inman
36/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Symbolic Manipulation
Solve equations (2.34) using Mathcad symbolics :

2 2 1
n  2. . n. 
Enter this . f0
2. . n.  n
2

2 0 Choose evaluate
2 2
under symbolics to
n 
. f0 get this
4 2 2 4 2 2 2
n 2. n .   4.  . n . 

2. . n. . f0
4 2 2 4 2 2 2
n 2. n .   4.  . n . 

© D. J. Inman
37/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 In MATLAB Command Window
>> syms z wn w f0
>> A=[wn^2-w^2 2*z*wn*w;-2*z*wn*w wn^2-w^2];
>> x=[f0 ;0];
>> An=inv(A)*x
An =
[ (wn^2-w^2)/(wn^4-2*wn^2*w^2+w^4+4*z^2*wn^2*w^2)*f0]
[ 2*z*wn*w/(wn^4-2*wn^2*w^2+w^4+4*z^2*wn^2*w^2)*f0]
>> pretty(An)

[ 2 2 ]
[ (wn - w ) f0 ]
[ --------------------------------- ]
[ 4 2 2 4 2 2 2]
[ wn - 2 wn w + w + 4 z wn w ]
[ ]
[ z wn w f0 ]
[2 ---------------------------------]
[ 4 2 2 4 2 2 2]
[ wn - 2 wn w + w + 4 z wn w ]

© D. J. Inman
38/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
Magnitude plots: Base Excitation
%m-file to plot base excitation to mass vibration
r=linspace(0,3,500);
ze=[0.01;0.05;0.1;0.20;0.50];
X=sqrt( ((2*ze*r).^2+1) ./ ( (ones(size(ze))*(1-r.*r).^2) + (2*ze*r).^2) );
figure(1)
plot(r,20*log10(X))

40
The values of can
then be chosen  =0.01
30 Design
directly off of the plot.  =0.05
value
20  =0.1
For Example:  =0.2
X/Y (dB)

If the T.R. needs to be 10  =0.5

less than 2 (or 6dB)
and r is close to 1 then 0
 must be more than
0.2 (probably about -10
0.3).
-20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency ratio r
© D. J. Inman
39/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
Force Magnitude plots: Base Excitation
%m-file to plot base excitation to mass vibration
r=linspace(0,3,500);
ze=[0.01;0.05;0.1;0.20;0.50];
X=sqrt( ((2*ze*r).^2+1) ./ ( (ones(size(ze))*(1-r.*r).^2) + (2*ze*r).^2) );
F=X.*(ones(length(ze),1)*r).^2;
figure(1)
plot(r,20*log10(F))

40
 =0.01
30  =0.05
 =0.1
20  =0.2
FT /kY (dB)

 =0.5
10

-10

-20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
© D. J. Inman Frequency ratio r
40/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Numerical Simulation
We can put the forced case:

mx(t )  cx (t )  kx(t )  F0 cos t

x(t )  2n x (t )  n2 x(t )  f 0 cos t
Into a state space form

x1  x2
x 2  2n x2  n2 x1  f 0 cos t
 0 
x (t )  Ax(t )  f (t ), f (t )   
 f 0 cos t 
© D. J. Inman
41/51 Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
 Numerical Integration
Euler: x(ti 1 )  x(ti )  Ax(ti )t  f(ti )t
Using the ODE45 function Zero initial conditions
>>TSPAN=[0 10]; 5

>>Y0=[0;0]; 4
>>[t,y] =ode45('num_for',TSPAN,Y0);
3
>>plot(t,y(:,1))
2

Displacement (m)
Including forcing 1

function Xdot=num_for(t,X) 0

m=100;k=1000;c=25; -1
ze=c/(2*sqrt(k*m));
-2
wn=sqrt(k/m);
w=2.5;F=1000;f=F/m; -3
f=[0 ;f*cos(w*t)]; -4
A=[0 1;-wn*wn -2*ze*wn];
Xdot=A*X+f; -5
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec)
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 Example 2.8.2: Design
damping for an electronics
model
• 100 kg mass, subject to 150cos(5t) N
• Stiffness k=500 N/m, c = 10kg/s
• Usually x0=0.01 m, v0 = 0.5 m/s
• Find a new c such that the max transient
value is 0.2 m.

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 Response of the board is;
transient exceeds design specification value
0.4

0.2
Displacement (m)

-0.2

-0.4
0 10 20 30 40
Time (sec)
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 To run this use the following file:
function Xdot=num_for(t,X)
m=100;k=500;c=10;
Create function ze=c/(2*sqrt(k*m));
wn=sqrt(k/m);
to model forcing w=5;F=150;f=F/m;
f=[0 ;f*cos(w*t)];
A=[0 1;-wn*wn -2*ze*wn];
Xdot=A*X+f;

>>TSPAN=[0 40];
>> Y0=[0.01;0.5];
Matlab >>[t,y] = ode45('num_for',TSPAN,Y0);
command >> plot(t,y(:,1))
window >> xlabel('Time (sec)')
>> ylabel('Displacement (m)')
>> grid

Rerun this code, increasing c each time until a

response that satisfies the design limits results.
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Solution: code it, plot it and change c
until the desired response bound is
obtained.
0.3
Meets amplitude limit when c=195kg/s
0.2
Displacement (m)

0.1

-0.1
0 10 20 30 40
Time (sec)
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 2.9 Nonlinear Response
Properties
• More than one equilibrium
• Steady state depends on initial conditions
• Period depends on I.C. and amplitude
• Sub and super harmonic resonance
• No superposition
• Harmonic input resulting in nonperiodic motion
• Jumps appear in response amplitude

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 Computing the forced response
of a non-linear system
A non-linear system has a equation of motion given
by:
x(t )  f ( x, x )  f 0 cos t
Put this expression into state-space form:

 x1 (t )  x2 (t )

 x 2 (t )   f ( x1 , x2 )  f 0 cos t
In vector form:
x (t )  F(x)  f (t )
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 Numerical form
Vector of nonlinear dynamics Input force vector

 x2 (t)   0 
F(x)    , f(t)   
  f (x1 , x2 )   f0 cos  t 
Euler equation is

x(ti 1 )  x(ti )  F(x(ti ))t  f(ti )t

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 Cubic nonlinear spring (2.9.1)
x  2 n x   n2 x  x 3  f0 cos t
2

1
Displacement (m)

-1
Non-linearity included
Linear system
-2
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec)
n
Superharmonic resonance 
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 Cubic nonlinear spring near
resonance x  2n x   n2 x  x3  f0 cos t
3

2
Displacement (m)

-1

-2 Non-linearity included
Linear system
-3
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec) n
Response near linear resonance 
© D. J. Inman
Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Tech
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