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V After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
© Àescribe the three elements of motivation.
© Identify four early theories of motivation and evaluate their
applicability today.
© Apply the predictions of Cognitive Evaluation theory to intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards.
© Compare and contrast goal-setting theory and Management by
Objectives.
© Contrast reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory.
© Àemonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity
theory.
© Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees.
© Compare contemporary theories of motivation.
© Explain to what degree motivation theories are culture-bound.

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V!he processes that account for an individualǯs
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward
attaining a goal Ȃ specifically, an organizational goal.
V!hree key elements:
© u
 
 Ȃ how hard a person tries.
© À
 Ȃ effort that is channeled toward, and consistent
with, organizational goals.
© a
  Ȃ how long a person can maintain effort.

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VMaslowǯs Hierarchy of Needs !heory

© Alderferǯs ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth)
VMcGregorǯs !heory X and !heory Y
VHerzbergǯs !wo-Factor !heory
VMcClellandǯs !heory of Needs

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Vºevels:
© Self-Actualization
© Esteem
© Social Higher order
© Safety ºower Order
© Physiological
VAssumptions
© Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs
at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
© Must move in hierarchical order.
Exhibit 6-1

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V!hree groups of core needs:
© î 
  (Maslow: physiological and safety)
© 

  (Maslow: social and status)
© 0
(Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)

VRemoved the hierarchical assumption

© Can be motivated by all three at once

VPopular, but not accurate, theory

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V !wo distinct views of human beings: !heory X
(basically negative) and !heory Y (positive).
© Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
© !he assumptions molded their behavior toward
employees
 !heory X
 Workers have little ambition
 Àislike work
 Avoid responsibility
 !heory Y
 Workers are self-directed
 Enjoy work
 Accept responsibility
V No empirical evidence to support this theory

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V ey Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not
opposites but separate constructs
V Hygiene Factors - Extrinsic and Related to À



© Work Conditions
© Salary
© Company Policies
V Motivators - Intrinsic and Related to ÿ



© Achievement
© Responsibility
© Growth
Exhibits 6-2 & 6-3

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VHerzberg is limited by his procedure
© Participants had self-serving bias
VReliability of raters questioned
©  ias or errors of observation
VNo overall measure of satisfaction was used
VHerzberg assumed, but didnǯt research, a strong
relationship between satisfaction and productivity

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V Need for Achievement (nAch)
© !he drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed
V Need for Power (nPow)
© !he need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise
V Need for Affiliation (nAff)
© !he desire for friendly and close interpersonal
relationships
V People have varying levels of each of the three needs
© Hard to measure

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V People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
© Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of
success Ȃ avoiding very low or high risk situations
©  e motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal
responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
© Àonǯt necessarily make good managers Ȃ too personal a
focus
© Most good general managers do NO! have a high nAch
© Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial
success
V Good research support but it is not a very practical
theory

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V Cognitive Evaluation !heory
V Goal-Setting !heory
© Management  y Objectives (M O)
V Self-Efficacy !heory
© Also known as Social Cognitive !heory or Social
ºearning !heory
V Reinforcement !heory
V Equity !heory
V Expectancy !heory
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VMajor Implications for Work Rewards

© Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent
© Extrinsic rewards decrease intrinsic rewards
© Pay should be noncontingent on performance
© Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation, tangible rewards reduce it
VSelf-concordance
© When the personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with personal
interests and core values (intrinsic motivation), people are happier and more
successful.
Exhibit 6-4

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V  asic Premise:
© !hat  and goals, with   

,
lead to higher performance.
V Àifficult Goals:
© Focus and direct attention
© Energize the person to work harder
© Àifficulty increases persistence
© Force people to be more effective and efficient
V Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
© Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
© !ask characteristics (simple, well-learned)
© Culture (best match is in North America)

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V M O is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
V Goals must be:
© !angible
© Verifiable
© Measurable
V Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more
specific goals at each level of organization.
V Four common ingredients to M O programs:
© Goal Specificity
© Participative decision making
© Explicit time period
© Performance feedback

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V An individualǯs belief that he or she is capable
of performing a task
© Higher efficacy is related to:
 Greater confidence
 Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
  etter response to negative feedback (work harder)
© Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting !heory

Exhibit 6-5

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V Enactive mastery
© Most important source of efficacy
© Gaining relevant experience with task or job
© DzPractice makes Perfectdz
V Vicarious modeling
© Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
© Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or
herself
V Verbal persuasion
© Motivation through verbal conviction
© Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies
V Arousal
© Getting Dzpsyched updz Ȃ emotionally aroused Ȃ to complete task
© Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task

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V Similar to Goal-Setting !heory, but focused on a
behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one

©  ehavior is environmentally caused

© !hought (internal cogitative event) is not important
 Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored
©  ehavior is controlled by its consequences Ȃ
reinforcers
© Not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of
behavior
© Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but not
likely to be the sole cause
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V Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-
inputs of relevant others
© When ratios are equal: state of equity exists Ȃ no
tension as the situation is considered fair
© When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to
unfairness
 Xnderrewarded states cause anger
 Overrewarded states cause guilt
© !ension motivates people to act to bring their
situation into equity
Exhibit 6-7

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V Can be four different situations:

© Self-Inside
 !he personǯs experience in a different job in the same
organization
© Self-Outside
 !he personǯs experience in a different job in a different
organization
© Other-Inside
 Another individual or group within the organization
© Other-Outside
 Another individual or group outside of the organization

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V Employee  ehaviors to Create Equity
© Change inputs (slack off)
© Change outcomes (increase output)
© Àistort/change perceptions of self
© Àistort/change perceptions of others
© Choose a different referent person
© ºeave the field (quit the job)
V Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
© Paid by time:
 Overrewarded employees produce more
 Xnderrewarded employees produce less with low quality
© Paid by quality:
 Overrewarded employees give higher quality
 Xnderrewarded employees make more of low quality
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V Organizational Justice
© Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace
© Made up of:
 Àistributive Justice
 Fairness of outcome
 Procedural Justice
 Fairness of outcome process
 Interactional Justice
  eing treated with dignity and respect
Exhibit 6-8

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!he strength of a tendency to act in a certain
way depends on the strength of an expectation
that the act will be followed by a given outcome
and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the
individual.
VImportant linkages:
©Expectancy of performance success
©Instrumentality of success in getting reward
©Valuation of the reward in employeeǯs eyes
Exhibit 6-9

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V  ased on Expectancy !heory
V See Exhibit 6-10

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V Motivation theories are often culture-bound
© Maslowǯs Hierarchy of Needs !heory
 Order of needs is not universal
© McClellandǯs !hree Needs !heory
 nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and
performance concerns Ȃ not universal traits
© Adamsǯ Equity !heory
 A desire for equity is not universal
 DzEach according to his needdz Ȃ socialist/former communists
V Àesire for interesting work seems to be universal
© !here is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of
Herzbergǯs !wo-Factor !heory may be universal

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V Need !heories (Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland,
Herzberg)
© Well known, but not very good predictors of behavior
V Goal-Setting !heory
© While limited in scope, good predictor
V Reinforcement !heory
© Powerful predictor in many work areas
V Equity !heory
©  est known for research in organizational justice
V Expectancy !heory
© Good predictor of performance variables but shares many
of the assumptions as rational decision making

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