UNIT - I

Basic concepts
 Topics
 Introduction
 Internet Model
 Signals
 Transmission Media

SDM,CA/SoC 2
Signals
 Signals and Data Transfer
 One of the major functions of the physical layer is to
move data in the form of signals across a
transmission medium.
 The data need to be digitized for storage and
interpretation by computer
 The digital data has to be converted into signals in
order to transmit it over the medium (optical,
electromagnetic signals).
 The signals are classified as
 Analog Signal
 Digital Signal

SDM,CA/SoC 4
 Analog Signal
 Analog signal
 is a continuous waveform
 has smooth transitions.
 It holds infinite values
within a boundary.
 Examples: naturally
occurring music and voice

SDM,CA/SoC 5
 Digital Signal
 Digital signal
 is a discrete or non-
continuous waveform
 is the wave form with
instantaneous transitions.
 It can hold only a set of
values within a boundary
 Examples: audio ,video or
anything in digital form

SDM,CA/SoC 6
 Periodic And Aperiodic
Signals

 Another classification of signals is

 periodic signals
 aperiodic signals.

SDM,CA/SoC 7
 Periodic Signal
 The wave completes a pattern within a
measurable time frame and the pattern is
repeated
 The pattern repeated is called as Cycle.
 The time duration is called as Period.
 The period is constant for a Signal.

SDM,CA/SoC 8
 APeriodic Signal
 When a wave does not exhibit any pattern ,
over a period of time then it is called as
APeriodic signal

SDM,CA/SoC 9
Analog Signals
Types of Analog Signals

 Simple Signal
 Composite Signal

SDM,CA/SoC 11
Simple Signals
 Sine Wave
The Simple Signal consists of only one signal
Component.
Example : Sine wave

SDM,CA/SoC 13
 Sine Wave
 Simple periodic analog signal
 S(t) = A Sin(2t+ )
 Where
 S- instantaneous amplitude (Amplitute at time t)
 A- Peak Amplitude
 - Frequency
 - Phase
 t-Time
SDM,CA/SoC 14
 Amplitude
& Peak Amplitude
Amplitude:
  It is the vertical distance from a point on the curve to the
horizontal axis.
 Peak Amplitude
 Peak amplitude is the absolute longest vertical distance and it
occurs at the peak / crust of the curve.

SDM,CA/SoC 15
 Frequency
 The frequency is the number of times a signal makes
a complete cycle within a given time frame or the
number of periods in one second.
 Spectrum - The range of frequencies that a signal
spans from minimum to maximum.
 Bandwidth - The absolute value of the difference
between the lowest and highest frequencies of a
signal.
 Frequency is measured in terms of hertz (Period is
measured in seconds)

SDM,CA/SoC 16
 Period and Frequency
 Frequency periods are inversely proportional
 Frequency = number of periods / Cycle per second.
f= 1/ T.
 When the signal transits instantaneous (jump), then the
frequency is infinite.
 When there is no change in signal state then the frequency =
0.

SDM,CA/SoC 17
Units of Periods and Frequencies
Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent

Seconds (s) 1s hertz (Hz) 1 Hz

Milliseconds (ms) 10–3 s kilohertz (KHz) 103 Hz

Microseconds (μs) 10–6 s megahertz (MHz) 106 Hz

Nanoseconds (ns) 10–9 s gigahertz (GHz) 109 Hz

Picoseconds (ps) 10–12 s terahertz (THz) 1012 Hz

SDM,CA/SoC 18
 Example 1
Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds, and
express the corresponding frequency in kilohertz.
Solution
 100 ms
 Now we use the inverse relationship to find the
frequency
 f = 1/100 KHz = 10-2 KHz

SDM,CA/SoC 19
 Period and Frequency
 Change in a short span of time means high
frequency
 Change over a long span of time means low
frequency.
 If a signal does not change at all, its frequency
is zero
 If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite
SDM,CA/SoC 20
 Phase
 Phase describes the position of the waveform
relative to time zero.

SDM,CA/SoC 21
 Phase
 A change in phase can be any number of
angles between 0 and 360 degrees.
 Phase changes often occur on common angles,
such as 45, 90, 135, etc.
 Phase is measured in degrees or radians
 A phase shift of 360° corresponds to a shift of
a complete period
 Phase shift of 180° corresponds to a shift of
one-half of a period
SDM,CA/SoC 22
 Example 2
 A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with
respect to time zero. What is its phase in
degrees and radians?
Solution
 We know that one complete cycle is 360
degrees.
 Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
 (1/6) 360 = 60 degrees = 60 x 2π/360 rad =
1.046 rad

SDM,CA/SoC 23
Sine wave examples

SDM,CA/SoC 24
Sine wave examples (continued)

SDM,CA/SoC 25
Sine wave examples (continued)

SDM,CA/SoC 26
 Time and Frequency Domains
An analog signal is best represented in the
frequency domain.

SDM,CA/SoC 27
 Time and frequency domains
(continued)
 time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with
respect to time
 frequency-domain plot shows the relationship between
amplitude and frequency

SDM,CA/SoC 28
Time and frequency domains
(continued)

SDM,CA/SoC 29
 Composite Signal
 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in
data communications;
 we need to change one or more of its
characteristics to make it useful
 When we change one or more characteristics
of a single-frequency signal, it becomes a
composite signal made of many frequencies.

SDM,CA/SoC 30
 Composite Signal
 The signal consists of multiple components.
 Each component is of different frequencies /
amplitude.
 It can be divided into components.
 Example : Voice Signal

SDM,CA/SoC 31
 Composite Signal

According to Fourier analysis, any composite

signal can be represented as a combination of
simple sine waves with different frequencies,
phases, and amplitudes.

SDM,CA/SoC 32
Three harmonics

SDM,CA/SoC 33
Adding first three harmonics

SDM,CA/SoC 34
 Bandwidth
 The bandwidth is a property of a medium
 It is the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies that the medium can
satisfactorily pass.

SDM,CA/SoC 35
 Bandwidth
 Bandwidth of a medium is the range of
frequencies it carries.
 Example: A medium can carry from 1000 HZ
to 5000 HZ.
 The bandwidth is also calculated as the
difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies.
 Bandwidth = HF – LF = 5000 – 1000= 4000
SDM,CA/SoC 36
Bandwidth

SDM,CA/SoC 37
 Bandwidth
 When the frequency spectrum of the signal is
higher than the medium’s then the frequency
rate of the signal that lies outside the spectrum
of the medium is chopped off.

SDM,CA/SoC 38
 Bit Rate & Bit Interval
 Bit rate: Number of bits transmitted in one second
(bps).
 Bit Interval: The time duration for which the signal
has to remain in a state to represent a bit Value.
 It is the time duration to send a single bit.
  Example: If the bit rate is 2000 bps , then find the bit
interval.
 Bit rate = number of bits/ (Bit Interval)
 Bit Interval= 1/2000 = .0005 seconds
SDM,CA/SoC 39
 Example 3
 If a periodic signal is decomposed into five
sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500,
700, and 900 Hz, what is the bandwidth? Draw
the spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
 B = hf - lf = 900 - 100 = 800 Hz
 The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300,
500, 700, and 900
SDM,CA/SoC 40
 Example 4
 A signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The
highest frequency is 60 Hz. What is the lowest
frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal
contains all integral frequencies of the same
amplitude.
 Solution
 B = hf - lf
 20 = 60 - fl
 fl = 60 - 20 = 40 Hz

SDM,CA/SoC 41
 Example 5
A signal has a spectrum with frequencies
between 1000 and 2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000
Hz). A medium can pass frequencies from 3000
to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000 Hz). Can this
signal faithfully pass through this medium?
Solution
The answer is definitely no.

SDM,CA/SoC 42
 Digital Signals
 Bit Interval and Bit Rate
 As a Composite Analog Signal
 Through Wide-Bandwidth Medium
 Through Band-Limited Medium
 Versus Analog Bandwidth
 Higher Bit Rate

SDM,CA/SoC 43
A digital signal

SDM,CA/SoC 44
 Example 6

 A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps.

What is the duration of each bit (bit
intervalSolution
 The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate.
 Bit interval = 1/ 2000 s = 0.000500 s
= 0.000500 x 106 ms = 500 ms

SDM,CA/SoC 45
Bit rate and bit interval

SDM,CA/SoC 46
Digital versus analog

SDM,CA/SoC 47
 A digital signal is a composite signal with an
infinite bandwidth

.
 The bit rate and the bandwidth are
proportional to each other.

SDM,CA/SoC 48
 Transmission Impairment
 Attenuation

 Distortion

 Noise

SDM,CA/SoC 49
Attenuation

SDM,CA/SoC 50
 Example 12
Imagine a signal travels through a transmission
medium and its power is reduced to half. This
means that P2 = 1/2 P1. In this case, the
attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated
asSolution

10 log10 (P2/P1) = 10 log10 (0.5P1/P1) = 10

log10 (0.5)
= 10(–0.3) = –3 dB
SDM,CA/SoC 51
 Example 13
 Imagine a signal travels through an amplifier
and its power is increased ten times. This
means that P2 = 10 ¥ P1. In this case, the
amplification (gain of power) can be
calculated as
 10 log10 (P2/P1) = 10 log10 (10P1/P1)
 = 10 log10 (10) = 10 (1) = 10 dB

SDM,CA/SoC 52
Distortion

SDM,CA/SoC 53
Noise

SDM,CA/SoC 54
 Throughput

 Propagation Speed

 Propagation Time

 Wavelength

SDM,CA/SoC 55
Throughput

SDM,CA/SoC 56
Propagation time

SDM,CA/SoC 57
 Signal Strength
 All signals experience loss (attenuation).
 Attenuation is denoted as a decibel (dB) loss.
 Decibel losses (and gains) are additive.

SDM,CA/SoC 58
Wavelength

SDM,CA/SoC 59
SDM,CA/SoC 60
SDM,CA/SoC 61
SDM,CA/SoC 62
 Analog to analog conversion or
modulation
 The characteristics of the carrier signal vary
depending on the characteristics of an analog signal
or modulating signal.
 When we need analog-to-analog modulation.
 The data / modulating signal is of lower frequencies,
hence cannot be transmitted over long distances.
 In case of band pass medium /allotted specific range
is broadband, the frequency need to be shifted to
match the medium’s frequency.

SDM,CA/SoC 63
 The modulation is of 3 types
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM)

SDM,CA/SoC 64
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 In AM the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied
(keeping the frequency and phase unchanged)
according to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
 Usually the output of AM circuit is double banded
(double side).
 The lower half is the mirror image of the upper half.
Thus the amplitude of the modulating signal acts as
envelope for the modulated signal.

SDM,CA/SoC 65
 Bandwidth requirement
 Bwr =2 * Bwm
 Where
• Bwr is the required bandwidth / bandwidth of the modulated signal.
• Bwm is the bandwidth of the modulating signal
 Advantages
 Comparatively less bandwidth than FM and PM.
 Disadvantages
 FM signals are much prone to noise.
SDM,CA/SoC 66
 Comparison of ASK and AM
ASK AM

Modulating signal is digital Modulating signal is analog

Modulated signal has only 2 level of Modulated signal has finite number of
amplitude. amplitude levels.

Amplitude of carrier signal is varied Amplitude of carrier signal varies

according to 0 or 1 according to the amplitude of
modulating signal.
Modulation is done for converting Modulation is done to shift the
digital into analog signal frequency range.

Frequency and phase remains same Frequency and phase remains same

SDM,CA/SoC 67
SDM,CA/SoC 68
SDM,CA/SoC 69
SDM,CA/SoC 70
SDM,CA/SoC 71
SDM,CA/SoC 72
SDM,CA/SoC 73