Introduction To Database: Edited: Wei-Pang Yang, IM - NDHU

Introduction to Database
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
 Database-System Applications
 Purpose of Database Systems
 View of Data
 Database Languages
 Relational Databases
 Database Design
 Data Storage and Querying
 Transaction Management
 Database Architecture
 Database Users and Administrators
Edited: Wei-Pang Yang, IM.NDHU Source: Database System Concepts, Silberschatz etc. 2006 1-1
Database System: Introduction
 Database Management System (DBMS)
 Contains a large bodies of information
 Collection of interrelated data (database)
 Set of programs to access the data
 Goal of a DBMS:
 provides a way to store and retrieve database information that is both
• convenient and
• efficient.
 Functions of DBMS: Management of Data (MOD)
 Defining structure for storage data
 Providing mechanisms for manipulation of data
 Ensure safety of data (system crashes, unauthorized access, misused, …)
 Concurrent control in multi-user environment
 Computer Scientists: developed a lot of concepts and technique for MOD

 concepts and technique form the focus of this book, and this course
1.1 Database-System Applications
 Database Applications:
 Banking: all transactions
 Airlines: reservations, schedules
 Universities: registration, grades, student profile, ..
 Sales: customers, products, purchases
 Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
 Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
 Databases touch all aspects of our lives
1.2 Purpose of Database Systems
 In the early days, database applications were built on top of file
systems
 Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
 Data redundancy and inconsistency
• Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different
files
 Difficulty in accessing data
• Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
 Data isolation — multiple files and formats
 Integrity problems
• Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become part
of program code
• Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)
 Drawbacks of using file systems to store data: (cont.)
 Atomicity of updates 原子性 , 單一性
• Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with
partial updates carried out
• E.g. transfer of funds from one account to another should
either complete or not happen at all
 Concurrent access by multiple users
• Concurrent accessed needed for performance
• Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
 E.g. two people reading a balance and updating it at the same
time
 Security problems
Solution
Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

1.3 View of Data and Data Abstraction
 Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer information)
is stored in disk.
 By sequential file, pointer, or hash structure, …
 Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the
relationships among the data.
type customer = record
name : string;
street : string;
city : string;
income : integer;
end;
 View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views

can also hide information (e.g., income) for security purposes.
View of Data -1: Three Levels
An architecture for a database system
View of Data -2: Three Levels
User A1 User A2 User B1 User B2 User B3
Host Host Host Host Host C, C++
Language Language Language Language Language
+ DSL + DSL + DSL + DSL + DSL
DSL (Data Sub. Language)
e.g. SQL
1 2 3
External View External External External View
schema schema
@ # & A B B
External/conceptual External/conceptual
mapping A mapping B
Database
Conceptual Conceptual management
< schema View system Dictionary
(DBMS) e.g. system
catalog
DBA Conceptual/internal
(Build and mapping
maintain
schemas
and Storage
1 2 3 ...
mappings) structure 100
definition Stored database (Internal View) # & @
(Internal
schema)
1.3.2 Instances and Schemas
 Schema – the logical structure of the database
 e.g., the database consists of information about a set of customers
and accounts and the relationship between them

 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
 Physical schema: database design at the physical level
 Logical schema: database design at the logical level account

create table account
(account-number char(10),
balance integer)
type customer = record customer

name : string;
street : string;
city : integer;
end;
Instances and Schemas (cont.)
 Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
 Analogous to the value of a variable
Instance
Schema
balance integer)
 Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema

without changing the logical schema
 Applications depend on the logical schema
 In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components
should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously

influence others.
View of Data: Three Levels
An architecture for a database system
Physical Data Independence
1.3.3 Data Models
 A collection of conceptual tools for describing
 data (entities, objects)
 data relationships
 data semantics
 data consistency constraints
 Data Models Provide:

 A way to describe the design of a database at 3 levels
• Physical level
• Logical level
• View level
Category of Data Models
 Category of Data Models:
 Entity-Relationship model
 Relational model
 Object-oriented model
 Semi-structured data models
• Extensible Markup Language (XML)
 Older models:
• Network model and
• Hierarchical model
1.4 Database Languages
 Data Definition Language (DDL):
 Specification notation for defining the database schema
 E.g.
balance integer)
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 To express database queries or updates
 E.g.
Select account-number
from account
where balance >1000
 SQL (Structured Query Language): a single language for both
1.4.1 Data-Manipulation Language (DML)
 Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized
by the appropriate data model
 DML also known as query language
For retrieval, insertion, deletion, modification (update)
 Two classes of languages
 Procedural DMLs – user specifies what data is required and
how to get those data
• E.g. … in C
Declarative DMLs (Nonprocedural DMLs) – user specifies

what data is required without specifying how to get those data

• E.g. In SQL: Select account-number
from account
where balance > 700
 SQL is the most widely used query language
1.4.2 Data-Definition Language (DDL)
 Specification notation for defining the database schema
 E.g.

balance integer)
 Define:
• Attributes name
• Data type
• Consistency constraints (integrity constraints)
 Domain constraints:
e.g. assets are integer type create table branch
(branch-name char(15),
 Assertions: e.g. assets >= 0 branch-city char(30),
 Authorization: for different users assets integer,
primary key (branch-name),
 ….
check (assets >= 0))
Data Dictionary and Storage Definition
 Data Dictionary:
 DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data dictionary
 contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
• Database schema
• System tables
• Users
•…
 Database system consults the Data dictionary before reading or
modifying actual dada.
 Data storage and definition language

• To specify the storage structure and access methods (ch. 11,12)
• Usually an extension of the data definition language
1.5 Relational Databases

Definition 1: A Relational Database is a database that is perceived
by the users as a collection of time-varying, normalized relations
(tables).
• Perceived by the users: the relational model apply at the view level and
logical levels.
• Time-varying: the set of tuples changes with time.
• Normalized: contains no repeating group (only contains atomic value).
 The relational model represents a database system at a level of
abstraction that removed from the details of the underlying machine,
like high-level language.
C, PASCAL ,PL/1 DBMS environments
assembler Relational DBMS
Relational
machine Data Model
1.5.1 Tables
 Definition 2: A Relational Database is a database that is perceived by
its users as a collection of tables (and nothing but tables).
1.5.2 Data-Manipulation Language
 SQL (Structured Query Language) : widely used
 E.g. find the name of the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465
select customer.customer-name
from customer
where customer.customer-id = ‘192-83-7465’
customer
Output:
customer-name
Johnson
SQL (Structured Query Language)
 E.g. find the balances of all accounts held by the customer with
customer-id 192-83-7465
select account.balance
from depositor, account
where depositor.customer-id = ‘192-83-7465’ and
depositor.account-number = account.account-number
1.5.3 Data-Definition Language
 SQL provides DDL to define database schema:
 Tables
• E.g.
balance integer)
 Assertions (ref. p.132)

• E.g. create assertion balance-constraint
check account.balance >= 1000
 integrity Constraints (ref. p.129)
Referential Integrity Constraint
3. account 存款帳
branch-name char(15),
balance integer,
primary key (account-number),
create table depositor

(customer-name char(20),
account-number char(10),
primary key (customer-name, account-number),
foreign key (account-number) references account,
references
4. depositor 存款戶
1.5.4 Data Access from Application Programs
 Application programs generally access databases through one of
 Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
 Application program interface (e.g. ODBC/JDBC) which allow
SQL queries to be sent to a database
 ODBC: Open Database Connectivity for C
 JDBC: Java Database Connectivity for Java language
ODBC/JDBC
1.6 Database Design
 Database Design - The process of designing the general structure of
the database:
 Logical Design
 Physical Design
 Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema.

 To find a “good” collection of relation schemas.
 Business decision – What attributes should we record in the
database?
 Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we
have and how should the attributes be distributed among the
various relation schemas?
 Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database
1.6.1 Design Process
 Phase I
 Specification of user requirement (with domain experts)
 Phase II
 Conceptual design (ch. 6)
 Choose a data model
 Design tables
 Normalization (ch. 7)
 Phase III
 Specification of functional requirements
 Phase IV
 Implementation
 Logical-design
 Physical-design (ch. 11, 12)
1.6.2 Database Design for Banking
 Banking Database: consists 6 relations:
1. branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)
2. customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-only)
3. account (account-number, branch-name, balance)
4. loan (loan-number, branch-name, amount)
5. depositor (customer-name, account-number)
6. borrower (customer-name, loan-number)
Example: Banking Database
1. branch 分公司 2. customer 客戶 ( 存款戶 , 貸款戶 ) 3. depositor 存款戶
4. borrower 貸款戶 5. 存款帳

6. loan 貸款帳
account
1.6.3 Entity-Relationship Model (ch.6)
 Example: Schema in the Entity-Relationship model
客戶存款帳
存款帳
客戶 ( 存款戶 , 貸款戶 , 信用卡戶 ) 存款戶

E-R Diagram for a Banking Enterprise, p.240
Entity Relationship Model (cont.)
 E-R model of real world
 Entities (objects)
• E.g. customers, accounts, bank branch
 Relationships between entities
• E.g. Account A-101 is held by customer Johnson
• E.g. Relationship set depositor associates customers with
accounts
 Widely used for database design
 Database design in E-R model usually converted to design in the
Relational model (coming up next) which is used for storage and

processing
 Relational Model (ch. 2)
 E-R model (ch. 6)
1.6.4 Normalization
 Definition: A Relational Database is a database that is perceived by
its users as a collection of tables (and nothing but tables).
<e.g.> Supplier-and-Parts Database

S SP S# P# QTY
S# SNAME STATUS CITY S1 P1 300
S1 Smith 20 London S1 P2 200
S2 Jones 10 Paris S1 P3 400
S3 Blake 30 Paris S1 P4 200
S4 Clark 20 London S1 P5 100
S5 Adams 30 Athens S1 P6 100
S2 P1 300
P P# PNAME COLOR WEIGHT CITY S2 P2 400
P1 Nut Red 12 London S3 P2 200
P2 Bolt Green 17 Paris S4 P2 200
P3 Screw Blue 17 Rome S4 P4 300
P4 Screw Red 14 London S4 P5 400
P5 Cam Blue 12 Paris
P6 Cog Red 19 London
Problem of Normalization
<e.g.>
S1, Smith, 20, London, P1, Nut, Red, 12, London, 300
S1, Smith, 20, London, P2, Bolt, Green, 17, Paris, 200
.
.
S4, Clark, 20, London, P5, Cam, Blue, 12, Paris, 400
Normalization
S P SP
S# SNAME STATUS CITY P# ... ... ... S# P# QTY
s1 . . London . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
S' P SP'
P# ... ... ... S# CITY P# QTY
or S# SNAME STATUS
S1 London P1 300
S1 Smith .
S2 . . . . . . S1 London P2 200
. . . . . . . . . . .
Redundancy Update Anomalies! ( 異常 )
1.7 Object-Based and Semistructured Databases
 Extend the relational data model
 by including object orientation and
 constructs to deal with added data types. (video, image, …)
 Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including
 non-atomic values such as nested relations. (repeated data, …)
 Preserve relational foundations,
 in particular the declarative access to data, while extending
modeling power. 6. borrower
1.7.2 Semistructured Data Models
 XML (Extensible Markup Language)
 Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C) 聯合
 Originally intended as a document markup language not a

database language
 The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag
structures made XML a great way to exchange data, not just
documents
 XML has become the basis for all new generation data
interchange formats.
 A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing
and querying XML documents/data
1.8 Data Storage and Querying
 Components of Database System Query
DBMS
 Query Processor
• Helps to simplify to access data Language Processor
• High-level view
Query Processor
• Users are not be burdened Optimizer
unnecessarily with the physical
details Operation Processor
 Storage Manager
• Require a large amount of space Access Method
• Can not store in main memory Storage Manager
• Disk speed is slower
File Manager
• Minimize the need to move data
between disk and main memory
Goal of a DBMS: provides a way to store and Database
retrieve data that is both convenient and efficient.

Overall System Structure
Overall
System
Structure
low-level data stored

databaseSource: Database System Concepts, Silberschatz etc. 2006
Edited: Wei-Pang Yang, IM.NDHU 1-37
1.8.1 Storage Management
 Storage Manager
 is a program module
 that provides the interface between the low-level data stored and the
application programs and queries submitted to the system.
 Tasks of the Storage Manager:

 interaction with the file manager (part of Operating System)
 Translates DML into low-level file-system commands,
 i.e. responsible for storing, retrieving and updating of data in database
 Data Structures of the Storage Manager

 Data files: store database itself
 Data Dictionary: store metadata
 Indices: provide fast access to data items that hold particular values
Storage Management (cont.)
 Components of Storage manager:
 Authorization and Integrity Manager
• Tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints

• Checks the authority of users to access data
 Transaction Manager
• Ensure the database in a consistent state (correct) after failures

• Ensure that concurrent transaction executions proceed without
conflicting
 File Manager
• Manages the allocation of space on disk

• Manages the data structures used to representation data stored
 Buffer manager
• Fetches data from disk into main memory

• Decides what data to cache in main memory
1.8.2 The Query Processor
 DDL Interpreter
 Interprets DDL statements
 write the definitions (schema, view, ..) into the data dictionary
 DML Compiler
 Translates DML statements into an evaluation plan (or some
evaluation plans) which consists low-level instructions
 Query Optimization: picks the lowest cost evaluation plan
 Query Evaluation Engine:

 execute low-level instructions generated by the DML Compiler
Flow of Query Processing
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation
Query Optimizer
 Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
 Equivalent expressions
 Different algorithms for each operation
 Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query
can be enormous
 Need to estimate the cost of operations
 Depends critically on statistical information about relations which
the database must maintain
 Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost
of complex expressions
Example: A Simple Query Processing
(補)
Query in SQL ：
SELECT CUSTOMER. NAME DBMS
FROM CUSTOMER, INVOICE
WHERE REGION = 'N.Y.' AND
AMOUNT > 10000 AND
Language Processor
CUTOMER.C#=INVOICE.C
Internal Form :
( (S SP) Optimizer Language Query

Operator : Processor
SCAN C using region index, create C Processor
SCAN I using amount index, create I
SORT C?and I?on C#
JOIN C?and I?on C#
EXTRACT name field
Operator Processor
Calls to Access Method ：
OPEN SCAN on C with region index
GET next tuple
.
.
.
Access Method
Calls to file system ： e.g.B-tree; Index; Access Storage
GET10th to 25th bytes from Hashing Method
block #6 of file #5 Manager
File System
database
1.9 Transaction Management
 Transaction:
 A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single
logical function in a database application
 Atomicity: all or nothing
 Failure recovery manager
 ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state,
 Failure:
• system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system
crashes)
• transaction failures.
 Concurrency-control manager
 controls the interaction among the concurrent transactions, to
ensure the consistency of the database.
1.10 Data Mining and Analysis
 Data Analysis and Mining
 Decision Support Systems
 Data Analysis and OLAP (Online analytical processing),
 Data Warehousing
 Data Mining
Decision Support Systems
 Decision-support systems
 are used to make business decisions,
 often based on data collected by on-line transaction
systems.
 Examples of business decisions:
 What items to stock?
 What insurance premium to change?
 To whom to send advertisements?
 Examples of data used for making decisions
 Retail sales transaction details
 Customer profiles (income, age, gender, etc.)
Data Mining (ch.18)
 Data mining:
 seeks to discover knowledge automatically in the form of statistical
rules and patterns from large databases. E.g. p.23: Young women buy cars.
 is the process of semi-automatically analyzing large databases to find
useful patterns
 Prediction based on past history
 Predict if a credit card applicant poses a good credit risk, based on some
attributes (income, job type, age, ..) and past history
 Predict if a pattern of phone calling card usage is likely to be fraudulent
 Descriptive Patterns 欺騙的
 Associations
• Find books that are often bought by “similar” customers. If a new
such customer buys one such book, suggest the others too. (library)
引起 ; 因果關係
 Associations may be used as a first step in detecting causation
1.11 Database Architecture
 System Structure of a Database System
 Fig. 1.6 (p.25)
 Application Structure
 User uses database at the site
 Users uses database through a network
• Client: remote database users work
• Sever: database system runs here
 Partition of Database Application

 Two-tier architecture
 Three-tier architecture
Application Architectures
ODBC/JDBC
 Two-tier Architecture: e.g. client programs using

ODBC/JDBC to communicate with a database
 Three-tier Architecture: e.g. web-based applications, and
applications built using “middleware”
1.12 Database Users and Administrators
User A1 User A2 User B1 User B2 User B3
Host Host Host Host Host C, C++
Language Language Language Language Language
+ DSL + DSL + DSL + DSL + DSL
DSL (Data Sub. Language)
e.g. SQL
1 2 3
External View External External External View
schema schema
@ # & A B B
External/conceptual External/conceptual
mapping A mapping B
Database
Conceptual Conceptual management
< schema View system Dictionary
(DBMS) e.g. system
catalog
DBA Conceptual/internal
(Build and mapping
maintain
schemas
and Storage
1 2 3 ...
mappings) structure 100
definition Stored database (Internal View) # & @
(Internal
schema)
1.12.1 Database Users and User Interfaces
 Application programmers
 interact with system through DML calls
 Sophisticated users 複雜 , 多用途

 Submit query without write program
 E.g. OLAP (Online analytical processing), data mining tools
 Specialized users
 write specialized database applications that do not fit into the
traditional data processing framework

 E.g. CAD, expert system, complex data type (graphics, audio)
單純的  Naive users (end user)

 invoke one of the permanent application programs that have
been written previously

 E.g. people accessing database over the web, bank tellers,
clerical staff 辦事員
1.12.2 Database Administrator
 Database Administrator:
 Coordinates all the activities of the database system;
 has a good understanding of the enterprise’s information
resources and needs.

 Database Administrator's Duties:
 Schema definition
 Storage structure and access method definition
 Schema and physical organization modification
 Granting of authorization for data access
 Routine maintenance
• Periodically backup database

• Upgrade system e.g. disk
• Monitoring performance
 …
1.13 History of Database Systems
 1950s – early 1960:
 Tapes: sequentially
 Application: Payroll,
 Input: punched decks, Output: printer
 Late 1960s -- 1970s:
 Disk: direct access
 Codd proposed Relational Model, …  Turing Award
 1980s:
 System R: IBM Res. Lab.  IBM DB2, Oracle, Ingress, DEC Rdb
 Replaced Network/Hierarchical model
 Research: parallel database, distributed database, object-oriented, …
 Early 1990s:
 Parallel database
 Object-Relational
 Late 1990s:
 World Wide Web was explosive growth
 Database were used much more than ever before
 Database had to support Web interfaces to data
History of Database Systems ( 補 )
1950-1965 1965-1979 1980-1989 1990-1995 1995-present
Network Semantic Merging data Object-Oriented

Network Object- models, OO-relation
Hierarchical
Data Model oriented knowledge-base XML
Hierarchical
Relation proposed Logic Relation Relation
Relation
Mainframes Faster PCs
Database Mainframes Mainframes Minis Workstations Parallel
Hardware PCs Database machines Optical memories
DL/I Graphics, Menus WWW

User None
SQL, QUEL
Natural language Web interface
Forms COBOL+DL/I Speech input
Interface Query-by-forms
Embedded Integrated database
Program Procedural Query 4GL
Procedural and programming
Interface non-Procedural Logic programming
language
Report Business graphics
Presentation Reports Reports generators Image output Multimedia
and display Processing Processing Information Knowledge
processing data data and transaction processing
processing
計算機科學的諾貝爾獎 – 杜林獎 ( 趙坤茂 )

 象徵最崇高學術桂冠的諾貝爾獎，從 1901 年開始頒發，根據瑞典
發明家諾貝爾的遺囑，設有物理、化學、生理醫學、文學及和平等
五個獎項；自 1969 年起，增設了經濟學諾貝爾獎。
 疑問 : 為什麼諾貝爾獎沒有數學獎項呢？坊間流傳的說法是，當初
諾貝爾的夫人，曾經和瑞典一位很有成就的數學家米塔雷符勒有過
一段婚外情，所以諾貝爾決定不設數學獎項。
 英國數學家亞蘭杜林 (Alan Turing ， 1912-1954) ，雖然無緣在有生
之年得到諾貝爾獎，但後人為了紀念他在數位計算理論貢獻而設立
的杜林獎 (Turing Award) ，已被公認是計算機科學領域最崇高的獎
項。
 杜林獎從 1966 年開始頒發，受獎人都是對計算機科學有深遠影響
的大師級學者。例如，在計算複雜度理論上有卓越貢獻的庫克
(Cook) 、 C 程式語言的創始人理奇 (Ritchie) 、 Unix 作業系統製作
人湯普生 (Thompson) 及資料庫管理系統的先驅卡德 (Codd) 等。
計算機科學的諾貝爾獎 – 杜林獎 (cont.)
 1936 年時，杜林提出了一個假想性的計算工具，稱為杜林機器
(Turing machine) ，這個機器有一個長條型、無窮多格的儲存磁帶
，每一格位置是空白或一個符號；附帶在磁帶上的是一個可讀寫的
磁頭，它可以在磁帶的格子往左或往右，並在每次移動時讀、寫或
擦拭該格子；還有一個有限狀態控制機，可運用狀態的改變，配合
目前磁頭所在的位置，來決定這些移動讀寫的動作。
 這樣一個簡單的機器，它的運算功力竟然相當於今天的數位計算機
，換句話說，目前數位計算機可以運算的方法，我們都可以在杜林
機器上實現！
 杜林也提出了如何決定電腦是否會“思考”的方法，也被視為人工
智慧研究領域的基石。
 在二次世界大戰時，杜林曾發展一個可以破解德軍密碼的機器，不
過世人在戰爭結束二十五年後才知曉。
 他也是馬拉松運動的好手，真是多才多藝的科學家。可惜他在
1954 年時就過世，只享年 42 歲。

Introduction To Database: Edited: Wei-Pang Yang, IM - NDHU

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Introduction to Database

 Collection of interrelated data (database)

 Set of programs to access the data

 Providing mechanisms for manipulation of data

 Ensure safety of data (system crashes, unauthorized access, misused, …)

 Concurrent control in multi-user environment

 Computer Scientists: developed a lot of concepts and technique for MOD

 Databases touch all aspects of our lives

Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

 View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views

and accounts and the relationship between them

 Physical schema: database design at the physical level

 Logical schema: database design at the logical level account

type customer = record customer

 Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema

 In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components

should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously

Physical Data Independence

 Data Models Provide:

what data is required without specifying how to get those data

create table account

 Data storage and definition language

 Assertions (ref. p.132)

 integrity Constraints (ref. p.129)

create table depositor

 Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema.

 Choose a data model

 Physical-design (ch. 11, 12)

4. borrower 貸款戶 5. 存款帳

客戶 ( 存款戶 , 貸款戶 , 信用卡戶 ) 存款戶

Relational model (coming up next) which is used for storage and

 E-R model (ch. 6)

<e.g.> Supplier-and-Parts Database

Redundancy Update Anomalies! ( 異常 )

 Originally intended as a document markup language not a

retrieve data that is both convenient and efficient.

low-level data stored

application programs and queries submitted to the system.

 Tasks of the Storage Manager:

 Translates DML into low-level file-system commands,

 i.e. responsible for storing, retrieving and updating of data in database

 Data Structures of the Storage Manager

 Data Dictionary: store metadata

• Tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints

• Ensure the database in a consistent state (correct) after failures

• Manages the allocation of space on disk

• Fetches data from disk into main memory

 Query Evaluation Engine:

( (S SP) Optimizer Language Query

 Partition of Database Application

 Two-tier Architecture: e.g. client programs using

 Sophisticated users 複雜 , 多用途

 E.g. OLAP (Online analytical processing), data mining tools

traditional data processing framework

單純的  Naive users (end user)

been written previously

clerical staff 辦事員

 has a good understanding of the enterprise’s information

resources and needs.

 Storage structure and access method definition

 Schema and physical organization modification

 Granting of authorization for data access