Week 3 findings

Quantum cascade
 Drift current
• Drift is, by definition, charged
particle motion in response to an
applied electric field
 Diffusion current
• Diffusion is the process of particles
distributing themselves from regions of
high concentration to regions of low
concentration.
• Greater the concentration gradient,
greater the flux of particles diffusing from
higher concentration region to lower
concentration region.
 Particle diffusion
Concentration gradient, dη /dx = positive
Concentration, η

Particles flow along −x direction

5
 Diffusion current
Holes Electrons

x x

hole flux electron flux

hole diffusion electron diffusion
current current

Jp|diff = − q Dp (dp / dx) Jn|diff = + q Dn (dn /

dx)
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 Total currents dp
J p = J p|drift + J p|diff = [qµ p pE ] + [−qDp ]
dx

drift diffusion

dn
J n = J n |drift + J n|diff = [qµ n nE ] + [qDn ]
dx

The total current flowing in semiconductor is given by:

J = Jn + Jp

7
Recombination – Generation
• Generation (G): How e-
and h+ are produced or
created.
• The concepts are
• Recombination (R): How visually seen in the
e- and h+ are destroyed energy band
or removed diagram below.
E
e
G R
• At equilibrium: r = g and EC
• since the generation hv hv
rate is set by the EV
temperature, we write it
as: r = gthermal x

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Recombination – Generation
• Recombination must
depend upon
– the # of electrons: no
– the # of holes: po
(If no e- or h+, nothing can
recombine!) • When the
temperature is
• From the chemical
raised
reaction
– gthermal increases
– e- + h+ → Nothing
Therefore
we can know that – ni must increase
– r = α rn op
The recombination o = α rn i
2
= gthermal too!
“rate coefficient”
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 PL set up
Lase Choppe
r r Sample

Lock in Monochromat
Amplifier or

Light
Detector
 Chopper
Optical choppers are mechanical devices that
physically block a light beam of some type .The
outer set of 16 slots is used for synchronisation
with the laser pulses. The inner set of slots has
the laser shone through it and in this case will
allow through every 4th pulse as shown below .
 Monochromator
Monochromators separate light into
its component colors. The exit slit
only allows a small amount of light
through ,usually one “color” or
wavelngth .
 Light Detector or Photo
Detector
“Linear” photodetectors have an ANALOG
electrical output which is proportional to the
optical input power .”Photono counting”
dtectors should be thought of as essentially
DIGITAL devices which produce a ‘click’ or pulse
when a photon event occurs . Recording the
signal consists of counting the pulses versus
time .
 Lock In Amplifier

Lock-in amplifiers are used to measure the

amplitude and phase of signals buried in noise
. They achieve this by acting as an extremely
narrow band pass filter which removes all the
noise while allowing through the signal to be
measured. The frequency of the signal to be
measured and hence pass the band region of the
filter ,is set by a reference signal which has to
be supplied to the lock amplifier .
two mirros : used for alignment of the beam
diaphragm : used for adjusting the power of the beam and also for creating a pinhole
to improve
beam uniformity
dpass filter : Blocks out all light except the wavelenght of the laser .
per : It takse the continuous wave of the laser and chop it up to higher frequein
At the higher frequencies the dominant noise is white noise which can he
us get a stronger signal .
ochramator : It split the light into the different energies .
Detector : Detects the light .
-in Amplifier : It matches the fequency of the chopper and that of the data and
amplifier and filter the noise .
PL experiment