PowerLecture: Chapter 8 Blood

Learning Objectives
    

Describe the composition and functions of blood. Explain how red blood cells transport oxygen. Explain the basis of blood typing. Define hemostasis and distinguish it from homeostasis. homeostasis. Describe various blood disorders.

Section 1 Blood: Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets

Blood: Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets

Blood is a connective tissue; it contains tissue; plasma, blood cells, and cell fragments called platelets.  Adult women of average size have 4-5 4liters of blood in their bodies; men have slightly more. more.  Blood makes up 6-8 % of your body 6weight.


red blood cell

white blood cell

platelets
Fig. 8.1

Blood: Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets




Plasma is the fluid part of blood.

Roughly 55% of whole blood is plasma, which plasma, is mostly water. Plasma proteins perform a variety of tasks: tasks:
It transports blood cells and platelets. Albumin is important in maintaining osmotic balance and transports chemicals such as therapeutic drugs. drugs. Other plasma proteins include protein hormones, as well as proteins involved in immunity, blood clotting, and the transport of lipids and vitamins.

Plasma further contains ions, glucose, amino acids, signaling molecules, and dissolved gases.

Components
1. Water 2. Plasma proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen, etc.)

Relative Amounts
91%-92% of plasma volume 7%-8% 1%-2% Solvent

Functions

Plasma portion (50%-60% of total volume):

Defense, clotting, lipid transport, roles in extracellular fluid volume, etc. Roles in extracellular fluid volume, pH, etc.

3. Ions, sugars, lipids, amino acids, hormones, vitamins, dissolved gasses 1. White blood cells: Neutrophils Lymphocytes Monocytes(macrophages)
Eosinophils Basophils

Plasma portion (50%-60% of total volume):

3,000-6,750 1,000-2,700 150-720 100-360
25-90 Phagocytosis during inflammation Immune responses Phagocytosis in all defense responses Defense against parasitic worms Secrete substances for inflammatory response and for fat removal from blood Roles in clotting

2. Platelets 3. Red blood cells

250,00-300,000

4,800,000-5,400,000 Oxygen, carbon dioxide transport per microliter

Fig. 8.1

Blood: Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets




Red blood cells carry oxygen and CO2.

Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, (45% of Erythrocytes, cells, whole blood) are biconcave disks.



They contain hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein ironthat binds with oxygen. They also carry a small amount of carbon dioxide.

Red blood cells originate from stem cells in the bone marrow.

Blood: Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets




White blood cells perform defense and cleanup duties.

Leukocytes, or white blood cells, make up a Leukocytes, cells, minor portion of whole blood and are responsible for housekeeping and defense; they also are derived from bone marrow. Leukocytes are of two main types:
Granulocytes have stainable granules in the cytoplasm; they include neutrophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils; basophils; and they work in body defense activities. Agranulocytes have no visible granules; monocytes become macrophages; and lymphocytes become B cells, T cells, and natural killer cells.

natural killer cells

neutrophils

mast cells

T lymphocytes

eosinophils

basophils forerunners of white blood cells (leukocytes)

B lymphocytes

? stem cells in marrow red blood cells (erythrocytes) monocytes (immature phagocytes)

dendritic cells

macrophages

megakaryocytes

platelets

Fig. 8.2

Blood: Plasma, Blood Cells, and Platelets




Platelets help clot blood.

Platelets are fragments of megakaryocytes produced by bone marrow stem cells. They are short lived (1 week), numerous, and function in blood clotting.

Section 2 How Blood Transports Oxygen

How Blood Transports Oxygen



Hemoglobin is the oxygen carrier.



Only a tiny amount of oxygen is dissolved in blood plasma. Most of the oxygen is bound to the heme groups of hemoglobin; oxygen-bearing hemoglobin is oxygenoxyhemoglobin. called oxyhemoglobin.

What determines how much oxygen hemoglobin can carry?

How Blood Transports Oxygen



The amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin changes as conditions in the tissues vary.
Binding of oxygen is favored by conditions in the lungs: abundant oxygen, cooler temperature, and neutral pH (in lungs). Release of oxygen is favored in the tissues where the oxygen levels are lower, temperatures higher, and pH more acidic. Hemoglobin also transports a small amount of carbon dioxide.

LUNGS more O2 cooler less acidic Hb + O2 HbO2 HbO2

TISSUES Hb + O2 less O2 warmer more acidic

How Blood Transports Oxygen



Each hemoglobin molecule has four polypeptide chains (globin proteins), each of which possesses a heme group containing an iron molecule; each iron binds one molecule of oxygen.

heme group

coiled and twisted polypeptide chain of one globin molecule

Fig. 8.3

Hemoglobin
 Four

polypeptide chains, two types: alpha and beta, each with heme group: iron molecule binds oxygen. Each hemoglobin molecule binds 4 oxygen molecules.

Section 3 Making New Red Blood Cells

Hormonal Control of Red Blood Cell Production




Red blood cells form from stem cells located in red bone marrow.
The hormone erythropoietin from the kidneys is the stimulus for stem cell division. Mature red blood cells have no nuclei and live for only about 120 days.
Macrophages remove old blood cells from the bloodstream; amino acids are returned to the blood, iron is returned to the bone marrow, and heme groups are converted to bilirubin. bilirubin. Red cell counts remain rather constant at 5.4 million/microliter million/microliter for males and 4.8 million for females.

Hormonal Control of Red Blood Cell Production




A negative feedback loop stabilizes the red blood cell count.

The kidneys monitor oxygen content of the blood; when it drops too low, the kidneys secrete erythropoietin. Erythropoietin stimulates bone marrow to produce more red blood cells; this increases the ability of the blood to carry oxygen. As oxygen levels rise, the information feeds back to the kidneys, which stop secreting erythropoietin.

Kidney

Erythropoietin

1 1
Reduced oxygen in blood Relieves 5

The kidneys detect reduced O2 in the blood. When less O2 is delivered to the kidneys, they secrete the hormone erythropoietin into the blood. Erythropoietin stimulates production of red blood cells in bone marrow. The additional circulating RBCs increase O2 carried in blood. The increased O2 relieves the initial stimulus that triggered erythropoietin secretion.

3
Developing red blood cells in red bone marrow

3 4 5

Increased oxygen in blood RBCs

Fig. 8.4

Why train at high altitude?

Erythropoietin and production of RBCs

Section 4 Blood Types Genetically Different Red Blood Cells

Blood Types Genetically Different Red Blood Cells



All cells of the human body have surface proteins and other molecules that serve as self identification markers.  Any protein marker that prompts a defensive action is antigen. called an antigen.  The human body produces antibodies that recognize markers on foreign cells as nonself and stimulate nonself immune reactions.

Blood Types Genetically Different Red Blood Cells




The ABO group of blood types includes key self markers on red blood cells.
ABO blood groups are based on glycoprotein surface markers on red blood cells.



Type A has A markers; type B has B markers. Type AB has both markers; type O has neither marker.

Depending on ABO blood type, the body will also possess antibodies to other blood types; ABO blood typing is done to prevent incompatible blood types from being mixed.

Blood Types Genetically Different Red Blood Cells




Mixing incompatible blood types can cause the clumping called agglutination.
Type A blood types do not have antibodies against A markers, but they do have antibodies to type B; Type B blood types do not have type B antibodies, but they do have type A antibodies, etc.
A type A person cannot donate blood to a type B person because they are incompatible. incompatible. When mixed, markers on the surface of red blood cells (not just the ABO markers) that do not match will cause the blood cells to undergo agglutination, agglutination, a defense response where the blood cells clump.

Table 8.1

Table 8.2

Blood Types Genetically Different Red Blood Cells



Clumped cells can clog small blood vessels, damage tissues, and cause death.

compatible blood cells

incompatible blood cells

Fig. 8.5

Donor type B blood

Recipient with type A blood

Antigen B Antibody to type A blood

Antigen A

Antibody to type B blood

Red blood cells from donor agglutinated by antibodies in recipients blood

Red blood cells usually burst Side effects disrupt kidney function

Clumping blocks blood flow in capillaries Oxygen and nutrient flow to cells and tissues is reduced

Fig. 8.5a

Section 5 Rh Blood Typing

Rh Blood Typing



Rh blood typing looks for an Rh marker.

Rh blood typing looks for the presence (Rh+) (Rh or absence (Rh-) of antigen on red blood cells. (Rh Most people dont have antibodies against Rh marker. An Rh- person transfused with Rh+ blood will produce antibodies to the Rh marker.

Rh Blood Typing


An Rh- mother who bears an Rh+ child can also become sensitized to the Rh antigen; secondary children may be at risk from maternal antibodies.
In hemolytic disease of the newborn, too many newborn, cells may be destroyed and the fetus dies. Medical treatment (RhoGam) given to the mother (RhoGam) after the birth of the first Rh+ baby can inactivate the Rh antibodies.

Rh Blood Typing



There are also many other markers on red blood cells.

Hundreds of different blood cell markers are known; most are widely scattered in the human population. To avoid problems with transfusions, blood crossundergoes cross-matching to exclude incompatible blood types from being used.

Section 6 New Frontiers of Blood Typing

New Frontiers of Blood Typing




Blood + DNA: Investigating crimes and identifying mom or dad.

Blood cell markers can be used to compare evidence from crime scenes to samples taken from possible perpetrators. Because blood groups are determined by genes, they are a useful source of information about a persons genetic heritage. Blood typing can also be used to help determine the identity of a childs father or mother.

New Frontiers of Blood Typing




For safetys sake, some people bank their own blood.

Even with screening, blood transfusions still carry the risk of being incompatible or potentially contaminated with infectious agents. In autologous transfusions, individuals pretransfusions, predonate blood to themselves prior to surgeries in case transfusion is needed.

New Frontiers of Blood Typing




Blood substitutes must also avoid sparking an immune response.

Blood substitutes have potential uses in situations where it is not feasible to perfectly match blood, such as in an ambulance or on the battlefield. To date, however, substitutes have been difficult to manufacture; OxygentTM is an oxygen carrier that has currently reached the final stages of clinical trials.

Section 7 Hemostasis and Blood Clotting

Hemostasis and Blood Clotting




Hemostasis prevents blood loss.

Hemostasis is the process that stops bleeding to prevent excess loss of blood.
Spasms of the smooth muscle in the damaged blood vessel stop blood flow for a few minutes by constriction of the vessel. Platelets clump to plug the rupture; they then release serotonin and other chemicals to prolong the spasm and attract more platelets. Finally, the blood coagulates to form the clot. Chemical signals from cells and platelets converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin, forms a clot with trapped red blood cells and platelets.

Injury to blood vessel

Wall of vessel contracts

Platelets stick to collagen fibers of damaged vessel wall

More permanent clot forms

Blood flow

Blood flow decreases

Blood flow Platelet decreases plug

Blood flow ceases

Prothrombin Damaged cells and platelets release substances that activate clotting factors Prothrombin activator Ca2+ Fibrinogen Thrombin Ca2+

Fibrin threads (clot)

Fig. 8.8

Hemostasis and Blood Clotting




Factors in blood are one trigger for blood clotting.

In the intrinsic clotting mechanism, internal mechanism, damage activates a plasma protein (factor X) that triggers the formation of thrombin. thrombin. Thrombin acts on fibrinogen to form insoluble threads of fibrin that will entrap blood cells and platelets to form a clot. With time, the clot becomes more compact, drawing the torn walls of the vessel back together.

Hemostasis and Blood Clotting




Factors from damaged tissue also can cause a clot to form.

In the extrinsic clotting mechanism, blood mechanism, clotting is triggered by the release of substances outside the blood itself due to damage there; the pathway is similar to the intrinsic mechanism. mechanism. These substances lead to the formation of thrombin.

Hemostasis and Blood Clotting



Clots that form in unbroken vessels can be lifelifethreatening as it blocks blood flow.
A clot that stays where it forms is called a thrombus (condition is thrombosis); one that breaks free and moves is called an embolus (condition is embolism). A stroke occurs when an embolus blocks flow to some part of the brain.

Hemophilia is a genetic disorder where clotting factors are absent from the blood so it does not clot properly.

Section 8 Blood Disorders

Blood Disorders



Anemias are red blood cell disorders.

Anemias develop when red blood cells deliver too little oxygen to the tissues. Two common types result from nutrient deficiencies:



In iron-deficiency anemia, red cells contain too little ironanemia, hemoglobin, usually resulting from an iron-poor diet. ironPernicious anemia is caused by a deficiency of folic acid or vitamin B12.

Aplastic anemia results from a destruction of the red bone marrow and its stem cells.

Blood Disorders


Hemolytic anemias are caused by the premature destruction of red blood cells.
Sickle cell anemia, a genetic anemia, disease, is one cause. Malaria is a major cause of hemolytic anemia and follows infection by a protozoan transmitted by mosquitoes. In thalassemia, individuals produce abnormal thalassemia, hemoglobin.
Figure 8.10

Blood Disorders



Carbon monoxide poisoning prevents hemoglobin from binding oxygen.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas present in auto exhaust fumes and smoke from wood, coal, charcoal, and tobacco. CO binds to hemoglobin 200 times more tightly than oxygen, thus blocking oxygen transport to tissues. Feeling faint near auto exhaust is a bad sign! Get some fresh air or you could faint and die! die! Cigarette smoke has CO too (dont smoke!).

Blood Disorders



Mononucleosis and leukemias affect white blood cells.

Infectious mononucleosis is caused by the EpsteinEpstein-Barr virus, which triggers overproduction of lymphocytes. Patient feels lymphocytes. achy and tired and runs a fever for several weeks. Leukemias are very serious cancers in which there is an overproduction of white blood cells and destruction of bone marrow.

Fig. 8.11