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OBJECTIVE
To acquire fundamental concepts pressure and head
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, student should be able to: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Define and derive Pascals Law Derive pressure variation with height in a fluid at rest Determine the pressure at various locations in a fluid at rest Differentiate between absolute and gage pressure Explain the concept of manometers Apply appropriate equations to determine pressures or pressure difference using different types of manometers vii. State advantages and disadvantages of manometer viii. Convert pressure in terms of head and vice versa
2.1 PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as a compressive stress, or compressive force per unit area. In a stationary fluid (liquid or gas) the compressive force per unit area is the same in all directions. In a solid or moving fluid, the compressive force per unit area at some point is not necessarily the same in all directions.
p=
Units: newtons per square meter (Nm-2 or kgm-1s-2) The same unit is also known as a Pascal Pa where 1 Pa = 1 Nm-2 Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar, where 1 bar = 105 Nm-2. Dimensions: ML-1T-2
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y = -psHyHz s
Since sin U = Hy/Hs Component of force in the x-direction due to py, Fxy = 0 To be at rest (in equilibrium) Fxx + Fxs + Fxy = 0 pxHyHz + -psHyHz = 0 px = ps
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Similarly, in y-direction: Force due to py Fyy = py x area CDEF = pyHxHz; Component of force due to ps Fys = -(ps x area ABCD) cos U
x = - p H xH z s sz s Cos U = Hx/Hs Component of force due to px, Fyx = 0 Force due to gravity, Weight of element = -specific weight x volume
= -ps =-
1 g x y z 2
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weight = 0
1 x y z =0 +- g 2
Since Hx, Hy, Hz are all small quantities, HxHyHz is very small and consider negligible, hence py = ps Thus, ps = px = py
Considering the prismatic element again, ps is the pressure on a plane at any angle U, the x, y, and z directions could be at any orientation. The element is so small that it can be considered a point so the derived expression ps = px = py indicates that pressure at any point is the same in all directions. (The proof may be extended to include the z axis). Pressure at any point is the same in all directions. This is known as Pascals law and applies to fluid at rest.
p2 A Area A
Fluid Density, z2
p1 A
z1
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= mg = Mass density x g x Volume = gA(z2-z1). Taking upward forces as positive, in equilibrium we have p1A - p2A - gA(z2-z1) = 0 p1p2 = g(z2-z1) p = g(z2-z1) Thus in any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure decreases with increase of height z.
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Face L Weight, mg
Face R
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This can be integrated to give, p = - gz + constant In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth z measured from the free surface so that z = - h (see the figure below)
The lower limit of any pressure is zero - that is the pressure in a perfect vacuum. Pressure measured above this datum is known as absolute pressure Absolute pressure is pabsolute = gh + patmosphere Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure As g is (approx.) constant, the gauge pressure can be given by stating the vertical height of any fluid of density which is equal to this pressure. p = gh The vertical height is known as head of fluid. Note: If pressure is quoted in head, the density of the fluid must also be given.
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h1 A
h2
This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only when the liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small or too large and pressure changes must be detectable.
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A h1 B
h2
man
A U-Tube manometer
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If the fluid is being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very low in comparison to the density of the manometric fluid i.e. man >> . In this case the term can be neglected, and the gauge pressure is given by pA =
mangh2
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Fluid density,
hb E A ha C D
Manometric fluid density,
man
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mangh mangh
Giving the pressure difference pA - pB = g(hb- h) + mangh gha Again, if the fluid whose pressure difference is being measured is a gas and can be neglected, so man >> , then the terms involving pA - pB = mangh
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Two pipes containing the same fluid of density = 990 kg m-3 are connected using a Utube manometer. What is the pressure between the two pipes if the manometer contains fluid of relative density 13.6?
A B E h a= 1.5 m h = 0.5 m
h b = 0.75 m
man
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We know from the theory of the "U" tube manometer that the height different in the two columns gives the pressure difference so,
p1 - p2 ! Vg(z1 z2 ) ! Vg z2 d / ! Vgz2 d /
z2 1
if D is very much larger than d then (d/D)2 is very small so p1 p2 = gz2 So only one reading need to be taken to measure the pressure difference.
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z2
Datum line
z
1
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D2 d2 z = x 4 1 4 z 2 = x sin
or
z1 = x (d / D )
p2
z2
Datum line 1
=15
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