Welcome To Research Methodology

WELCOME TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Dr.C.MURTHY
M.A., M.Phil., (Eco), M.Sc., (Envir) M.B.A. Ph.D
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PREFACE
Research has been given an important place in our courses of studies in various social sciences. The study of research methodology is very engaging and it has become a part of every research scholar activity The book covers the theoretical, practical aspects of research methodology as far as possible in a clear and exhaustive manner. Every chapter in this book explains the principles through appropriate descriptive and analytical explanations, for scientific method of research in social sciences and in business management research. This book is meant for B.B.A., M.B.A., M.A., M.Sc., (Psy), M.Com., M.Phil. and Ph.D. in all social sciences and Master of Business Administration degrees of Indian Universities. I am deeply indebted to various authors and publishers whose books I have gone through during the process of writing this book. The statistical tools of analysis of data were there in those books. My contribution lies in compiling them and explaining their applications and presenting them in a lucid and novel manner. I thank my wife, Mrs.Selvarani, my daughter M.Preethi, my son M.Naveen for their patience during the writing of this book. I am grateful to our fellow research scholars and teachers who have given suggestions on the subject. I also thank to publishers, M/s.Vrinda Publications (P) Ltd., Delhi, for their effort in bringing out the book in an elegant form and at a reasonable price, in time. Valuable suggestions and criticisms from the readers will be appreciated and included in the subsequent editions. Dr.C.MURTHY Chennai (Tamilnadu)
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CHAPTERCHAPTER-01 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Research of any kind is a careful investigation through search for new facts. We may define social research as the systematic method of discovering new facts or verifying old facts, their sequences, inter-relationships, causal interexplanations and the natural laws which govern them - P.V.Young CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH Study Behavior of Human Beings: Social research deals with the social phenomena. Discovering New Facts: Social research is carried on both for discovering new facts and verification of the old ones. Scientific Analysis: Social research tries to establish causal connection between various human activities.
INTRODUCTION
Basic Assumptions of Social Research The application of scientific methods of sociological research is based upon certain assumptions, which may be classified as below. Existence of cause and effect relationship It has to be accepted as a basis of social research that there exists cause and effect relationship between various social activities. Existence of sequence or law in social activities There is some system some trend behind them. If this trend or system is located it is possible to predict the future course of social phenomena. Possibility of detached study Even though man is an integral part of the society which he is investigating still it is possible for him to study it by keeping himself separate from the system Existence of ideal types People can be grouped into fairly, homogenous classes known as ideal type.
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions though the application of scientific procedures. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it termed as exploratory or formulative research studies); To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group known as descriptive research studies); To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else known as diagnostic research studies); To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following: Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems. i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research; Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; Desire to be of service to society; Desire to get respectability
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INTRODUCTION
The success of a research work to a great extent depends upon the qualities of researcher. The qualities are two fold: General qualities that are needed for any research. Specific qualities that are concerning the particular research
GENERAL QUALITIES Scientific Attitude: The first essential quality of a successful research worker is that he must possess a `scientific frame of mind. Imagination: A research worker must possess a high degree of imagination power. Perseverance : The work of scientific research requires unlimited patience and inexhaustible perseverance. A Quick Grasping Power : The research worker should possess power to grasp the significance of things quickly. Clarity of Thinking: The research worker should be very clear in his concepts.
SPECIFIC QUALITIES The Chief qualities required are as follows: Knowledge of the Subject : The research worker should have a complete knowledge of the subject under study. Knowledge of the Technique of Research : The research worker should also possess the intimate knowledge of the technique that is to be applied to the problem. Personal Taste in the Study : The research worker should take personal taste in the study 7 undertaken.

INTRODUCTION
Familiarity about the Informants : It is desirable that the research worker should make himself familiar with the people whom he is studying. Unbiased Attitude : The researcher should have no preconceptions about the subject under study.
CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH Good research is systematic Good research is logical Good research is empirical Good research is replicable PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS IN INDIA The Lack of a Scientific Training Lack of Interactions Lack of Confidence Analyse Overlapping Lack of Code of Conduct Unnecessary Delays Inadequate Library Management Irregular supply of Government Publications Lac of availability of Published Data Problem of Process of Data Collection
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INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS OR USES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH The chief material benefits of social research are as follows: Social Control: Planning is not confined to the field for Economics alone, it has an equal importance in the field of social organization. Social Cohesion: The study of society creates better understanding between different social groups Social Welfare: Social welfare or removal of social evils can be achieved through social research. Social prediction: Social research helps us to formulate social laws which show relationship between social facts and their causes. Social Growth: Social research helps in the growth lines. Perfection of Tool of Research: As social research progresses the tools of analysis and methods of research become more perfect with use.

Limitations of Social Research During the course of conducting a research one has to constantly guard against bias, subjectivity and inaccuracy. Yet, it is difficult to totally avoid them and a minimum of bias and inaccuracy is always present in any research social research happens to be no exception and it is replete with instance of problematic situation where some errors cannot be possibly avoided.
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CHAPTERCHAPTER-02 RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
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RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Research is the process of gathering, recording and analyzing of critical
and relevant facts about any problem in any branch of human activity - R.HANSEN Research methodology is a way to solve the research problem systematically. In social research, there are different branches of learning such as marketing, management, economics commerce, sociology, psychology and other courses are called social sciences. MARKETING RESEARCH Marketing research is divided into consumer marketing research and business-to- business marketing research, or business marketing marketing research investigates the markets for products sold by one business MARKETING INFORMATION SYSTEM The marketing informations are : 1. Customers expectation, 2. Degree of competition, 3. Government policies, 4. Channel of distribution, 5. Rival products, 6. Motives of the customer, 7. Supply and demand, 8. Size of the market, and 9. Customers satisfaction about the product. Areas for Marketing Research Major areas for marketing research identified by the management are: 1. Research on markets, 2. Research on sales, 3. Research on product, 4. Advertising and promotion research, 5. Corporate growth research and Business economic research.
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PROCEDURE OF MARKETING RESEARCH Defining the problems Determining the information needed Determining the source of information Deciding research methods Tabulation, analysis and interpretation of the data Preparation of the report Follow up study. CONTRIBUTION OF MARKETING RESEARCH Marketing research as a guide will shape the products suitable to the demand. It helps to stimulate the sales through sales promotions. It plays an important role in decision making. LIMITATIONS OF MARKETING RESEARCH Marketing research studies the behaviour of customers, so it is quite impossible to achieve mathematical accuracy. OPERATIONS RESEARCH Management asks operation research experts to provide quantitative bases for such decisions which will permit management to make the best operating decisions.
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OPERATIONS RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT Methodology of Operation Research The main steps are: 1. Problem formulation 2. Constructing a mathematical model 3. Deriving solutions from the model 4. Testing the model 5. Establishing controls over the solution 6. Implementing the solution. Kinds of Operations Research Models Techniques of Operations Research LIMITATIONS OF OPERATIONS RESEARCH Operation research has certain limitations. Optimal solution calculations cannot be handled manually but require electronic computers which bear very heavy cost. RESEARCH IN MANAGEMENT Management Techniques involve solution of problem and arriving at correct decision for the survival and growth of organization.
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RESEARCH DESIGN

The important stages can be broadly classified as : Formulation of research problem, Survey of literature The conceptual framework. Formulation of research issues Transformation of specific objectives Research hypotheses Coverage, 8. Data source Tools of analysis Limitations of the study Chapter outline Budgeting and cost estimation and report design.
AREAS OF RESEARCH

The major areas of the management are: Production Management Personnel Management Marketing Management Financial Management.
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RESEARCH IN ECONOMICS The study of economics, especially mainstream neoclassical economics, raises methodological questions about the character of study of social and human behaviour. METHODOLOGIES IN ECONOMICS There are various methods and methodologies to study the problems of economics. Broadly speak these have deductive and inductive dimensions. DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH Deductive researchers hope to find data to match a theory. Inductive Research The different methodologies of economics represent the different views of the economists regarding a particular problem Political Economy approach Analytical and mathematical method Quantitative and qualitative approach to economics. Economic theories are based on statistical testing and significance of the variables in practical problems, and also framed the mathematical models such as unvaried, vicariate and multivariate techniques. STATISTICAL AND ECONOMETRIC MODEL Economic theories are based on statistical testing and significance of the variables in practical problems, and also framed the mathematical models such as univariate, bivariate and multivariate techniques Facts and Theories Scientific enquiry starts with facts and then move towards the theorizing
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RESEARCH IN COMMERCE The purpose of research in commerce is to understand and solve a business problem. Process of Research Design Research design in commerce is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing research study. Areas of Research There are various areas of research in commerce are: Accounting, Principles of commerce Business organization Income Tax, Cost accounting, Management accounting Banking insurance and research RESEARCH IN SOCIOLOGY Sociology is a social science which makes a scientific study to mens relations in society, their forms, kinds, actions, incidents, etc. Scientific Method Different steps : 1. Observation 2. Recording 3. Generalization 4. Verification.
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Areas of Research Social pathology Criminology Sociology of law Penology Political sociology Comparative Sociology Urban sociology Rural Sociology. Methods of Sociology The major methods of investigation in social phenomena used by sociology are: Questionnaire Schedule Interview Case study Observation, Social Survey Social Research Statistical Method.
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RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY The process of applying the scientific method to the solution of psychological problem or any problems of life in general. Science Science can be defined both as an organized body of knowledge and method and a system of arriving at the truth. Scientific Method Scientific method is a synthesis of a reason and observation. Features It is with the verification of the acquired knowledge. It is the way in which one can test opinions, impressions or guesses by examining the available guidance. It aims at discovering facts. It is self corrective in nature. It is based on systematic doubt. It is an objective, logical and a systematic method of study.
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Process of Research The steps of scientific method are: Phenomena are observed Problem is noted and clarified Relationships are identified Hypothesis is derived Hypothesis tested Analysis of the data Conclusions are drawn. Limitations There are several limitations in scientific method they are Uncertainty Unexplained principles Limited scope Complex human behaviour Difficult Judgement Superstition Difficulties in observation Difficulties in measurement.
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SIGNIFICANCE OF MATHEMATICS IN SOCIAL RESEARCH Mathematics plays an important role the development of theory in social sciences. Integral part of social sciences Idea of the Interrelationship Facilitate the formulation of policies Relationship may be written as: Y = f (x1, x2) Studying Political Behaviour Social Transformation of that society Better understanding of social sciences Purposeful instrument of solution of problem
MODELS AND MODELLING IN SOCIAL RESEARCH Model The term `model has several connotations. The dictionary meaning of this world is a representation of a thing. Modeling: Models can be understood in terms of their structure and purpose
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Presentation of Models They are as follows Verbal or prose models. Graphical/conceptual models Mathematical models Logical flow models TYPES OF MODELS Models in social research studies have been classified in many ways. Physical Models Mathematical Models Macro Vs. Micro Models Static vs. Dynamic Models Analytical Numerical Models Deterministic vs. Stochastic Models OBJECTIVES OF MODELLING Description of the system functioning Prediction of the future Helping the decision maker/manager decide what to do
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CHAPTERCHAPTER-03 DECISIONAL RESEARCH
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DECISIONAL RESEARCH
Research cannot draw decisions, but it helps the marketers in the task of decision making. -R.HANSEN FEATURES OF DECISION-MAKING Some basic features of decision making are: Goal Directed Activity An Integral Part of Management Intellectual Activity Involves Choice
Types of Business Management Decisions Business Management decisions are classified under the heads Organizational and Personal Decisions Basic and Routine Decisions Programmed and unprogrammed decision Individual and group decisions Functional Decisions
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DECISIONAL RESEARCH
Decision steps and Research Objectives Definition and Analysis of the problem Development of alternative solutions Evaluation of alterative solutions Selection of the Best Alternatives Communication and implementation Follow - up action Variations in the Selection of Alternatives
Process of Selection There are nine steps involved in process of alternatives selection in business. Situation analysis Problem definitions Setting up of objectives Generating Alternatives Evaluation of alternatives Deciding on optimal choice Potential analysis Implementation Setting up feedback system.
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DECISIONAL RESEARCH
SOURCES OF BUSINESS UNCERTAINTIES Some of the main sources of uncertainties in business: Market fluctuations Industry fluctuations Competition Technology changes Taste fluctuations Cost fluctuations Cost fluctuations
UNCERTAINTY AND DECISION RESEARCH If everything could be predicted accurately, then decision making would become a fairly simple process. METHODS OF DECISIONS AND THEORIES The following methods may be used to reach decisions are: The expected value criterion The pay off matrix Bayesian analysis, Decision trees Simulation method of analysis.
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DECISIONAL RESEARCH
THE EXPECTED VALUE CRITERION The expected value criterion method, the decision maker to calculate the expected value of each alternative decision. THE PAY OFF MATRIX It represent the decision-makers best estimate of outcomes for each combination of strategy and state of nature.
Where = expected value i = Number of outcomes (I = 1, 2, 3 n) R = Value of possible outcome P = Probability of the outcome These probabilities may be used as weights to calculate the expected value.
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DECISIONAL RESEARCH
BAYESIAN ANALYSIS Bayesian analysis deals with as possibilities can be revised on account of the availability of new information, probability theory of considerable importance in decision making in research. Prior Analysis Posterior Analysis Pre-Posterior Analysis
Formula :
CI EMGII EMVIT
EMGII EMVII CI
= Cost of Information = Expected monetary gain of imperfect information = Expected monetary value of imperfect information.
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DECISIONAL RESEARCH
DECISION TREES
VALVE(RSLAKHS)
3 2
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DECISIONAL RESEARCH
Steps of Decision Trees Identify all the course of action List the possible result Calculate the pay off Assign probabilities Select the maximum pay off
Advantages It helps in a decision in a systematic manner. Business decision maker is considered the possible desirable and undesirable results. It is helpful in communicating decision making process. It can be applied in computer process of final outcome. Limitations It is expensive method and also time consuming for process It is based on less reliability of data This analysis is ignored the non-quantitative factors such as attitude.
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DECISIONAL RESEARCH
SIMULATION METHOD Simulation is a technique of a computer programme can be constructed to stimulate what is likely to occur.
Advantages It helps in a decision in a systematic manner. Business decision maker is considered the possible desirable and undesirable results. It is helpful in communicating decision making process. It can be applied in computer process of final outcome.
Limitations It is expensive method and also time consuming for process It is based on less reliability of data This analysis is ignored the non-quantitative factors such as attitude.
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CHAPTERCHAPTER-04 BUSINESS RESEARCH
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BUSINESS RESEARCH
Ethical Business but it becomes unethical when there is no intention to follow up with larger study or to the research firm in the future. - BETRY PETERSON Concept Business Research is the systematic and objective identification, collation, analysis, dissemination, and use of information for the purpose of improving decision making related to the identification and solution of problems. CHARACTERISTIC OF BUSINESS RESEARCH The following an important characteristics of business research are Systematic Sound Methodology Scientific approach Objective Unbiased Accurate findings Classification of Business Research
A
Organization engage in business research for two reasons Problems Identification Research Problem Solving Research
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BUSINESS RESEARCH
Business Research Process The business research process as consisting of six steps they are Problem Definition An approach to the problem Research Design Formulation Field work or data collection Data Preparation and Analysis Report Preparation and Presentation
ENVIRONMENT CONTENT OF THE BUSINESS PROBLEM The researcher should analyze the factors that have an impact on the definition of the business problem. Past Information and Forecast Resources and Constraints Business Objectives Buyer Behaviour Legal Environment Economic Environment Marketing Conditions Technological Changes
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BUSINESS RESEARCH
COMPONENTS OF BUSINESS RESEARCH The approach development of business research should include the following components Objectives Theoretical framework Analytical Model i. Verbal Model ii. Graphic Model iii. Mathematical Model Research Questions Hypothesis Relevant characteristics

BUSINESS PLANNING Planning is the process of establishing individual or organizational goals and the ways to achieve the goals.
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CHAPTERCHAPTER- 05 TYPES OF RESEARCH & APPROACHES
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TYPES OF RESEARCH & APPROACHES

Research concepts may appear elementary almost self-evident however, their selfapplication requires care. - HAYNES AND HENR
Researches have been classified differently depending upon the approach, the purpose and the nature of a research activity. Fundamental, Pure or Theoretical Research This type of research is original or basic in character Discovery of a new Theory Development of the existing theory APPLIED RESEARCH This type of research is based on the application of known theories and models to the actual operational fields or populations. Utility to Developing Countries Applied research has practical utility in the developing countries. Field Investigation Method Applied research often taken the form of a field investigation and aims at collecting the basic data for verifying the applicability of existing theories and models in given situation. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH Exploratory research is designed to provide a background, to familiarize and, as the word implies, just explore the general subject.
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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Descriptive research as the name suggests is designed to describe something ACTION RESEARCH Action research is also a recent addition to the categories of research known to a modern social scientist. EVALUATION RESEARCH Evaluation research is a recent addition to the types of research. The Evaluation Research is of three types, mainly (1) Concurrent evaluation (2) Phasic or periodic evaluation and (3) Terminal evaluation. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Experiments are artificial in the sense that the situations are usually created for testing pruposes. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. SURVEY RESEARCH Survey research studies large and small populations by selecting and studying samples chosen from the populations-sociological and psychological variables.
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND QUANTATIVE RESEARCH Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind FIELD INVESTIGATION RESEARCH A field experiment is generally credited with a few virtues which are supposed to be unique to this category of research. EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH In ex-post research, the researchers control on the behaviour of independent variables is very week and in many cases no control is possible. HISTORICAL RESEARCH Historical study is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to reconstructing the origin and development of an institution CASE STUDY A case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an episode, a process, a situation, a programme, a community an institution or any other social unit.
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CHAPTERCHAPTER- 06 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Nothing is so practical as a good theory - PHIL BUCHANA LITERATURE Literature in this context consists of books, journals, reports and research thesis, newspaper. Books Journals Reports Research Dissertations and theses. Newspapers Micro Forms

PURPOSES OF REVIEW The reasons for review of related literature are to gain a background knowledge of the research topic, to identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them and to formulate researchable hypotheses; to identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts and techniques of analysis, to identify data sources used by researchers to learn how others structured the reports.
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REVIEW OF LITERATURE
SOURCES OF LITERATURE Subject Catalogues of Libraries Documentation Service Documentation Service Lists of Books and Publishers' Bulletins: Journals Government Reports Research Abstracts Internet Sources
General Business and Economic literature SIGNIFICANCE OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE The researcher should undertake the survey of literature related to the problem because it is an eye-opener for research work. Help to study the past Basic knowledge of information Proper sources of social results Helps the reliable conclusions Guidelines the Direction of Analysis
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CHAPTERCHAPTER- 07 ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH
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ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

The computer can facilitate the implementation of different types of research design. - W.K.JOHN Computer is not only an extension of mans ability to compute but also help him in storing and retaining data for further research. SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPUTERS Computer helps in various field of research promotion and development. It is useful in research programme. Speed and Accuracy Logical Decisions for Research Perfect memory relating to Research Versatility Diligence Automation Achievement of Modern Knowledge
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EVOLUTIONS OF COMPUTERS Difference Engine In 1823, Babbage put together a model of the first mechanical computer. It is called the difference engine. Analytical Engine Babbage improved on the difference engine and designed a more sophisticated and large calculating machine in 1834. First Programme Lord Byrons daughter is famous as the First Programmer Boolean Algebra George Boole actually applied the solution of alternative choices Punched Cards A big step forward was taken in the development of information processing in 1890 census of U.S.A.
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Magnetic media Major development were taking place in the areas of recording devices by Mr. Valdemer poulson. Thermionic value In 1906 Lee De Forest invented the Thermionic value. First Automatic Electro Mechanical computer In 1930 at Harvard University, Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper got together and arranged for the IBM to build them a general purpose computer. Generation The term generation refers to major developments in computer science. USE OF STATISTICAL PACKAGES / SPSS A number of easy to use packages which run on micro computers to perform standard statistical analysis are available. INTERFERENTIAL TOOLS IN SPSS Researcher has to look into the actual usage of various statistical tools in different areas of research. For research analysis, the statistical software packages are SPSS, SAS, SX, MYSTAT, etc.
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TOOLS AND MODULES The following tools and statistical procedures are available in SPSS. Compare Means General Linear Model Correlation Regression Log Linear Classification Data Reduction Non-Parametric Test Time Series Survival Tool Multiple Response Other related softwares S-Plus Kyplot Features of software Mathematical Statistical
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USE OF INTERNET IN RESEARCH TECHNICAL TERMS The following are the technical terms are associated with Internet they are Uniform Resource Location Lotes Notes Search Engine Hypertext Markup Language COMPUTERISED DATABASES Classification A classification of computerized databases is helpful. It may be classified as on-line, Internet, or offline. On-line Databases Internet Databases Off-Line Database Other methods of Database Bibliographic Databases Numeric Databases Full-Text Databases Directory Databases Special purpose Databases
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IMPORTANCE OF INTERNET Source of Research Provider Helps in project Management Information supplier Statistical packages Computer Maps Sources of Secondary Data Sources of Government Data E-mail Interview Consistency Check
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CHAPTERCHAPTER- 08 RESEARCH DESIGN
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RESEARCH DESIGN
The greatest force in the world is thought. BABA The research design is a blue print of action. The essentials of research design It is an activity and time based plan. The design is based on the research questions. The design guides the selection of sources and types of information. It is a frame work for specifying the relationship among the studys variable. It outlines the procedures for every research activity.
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN The research design has to be prepared on account of the following reasons Blue Print of the Proposed Research Plan Sampling Procedure Gives General Idea Efficiency in Research Reliability
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RESEARCH DESIGN
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN Method of data collection Researcher's control of variables Purpose of the study
Descriptive studies The research concerned with finding out who, what, where, when or how much is a descriptive study. Casual studies If the researcher is concerned with analyzing how one variable produces changes in another, it is called a casual study. Testing Casual Hypotheses To test casual hypotheses, three types of evidence can be opted Co variation between the variables. Time order of events moving in the hypothesized direction. No other possible causes for change in the dependent variable
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RESEARCH DESIGN
CAUSATION AND EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Control Group Random Assignment Causation and Ex Post Facto Design Time Dimension Scope The Research Environment: Participants Perceptions Type of investigation Units of Analysis
Extent of Crystallization of Research Question Combining the approaches listed above four techniques could be derived. Secondary data analysis Experience survey Focus groups Two-stage design
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RESEARCH DESIGN
ERRORS IN RESEARCH DESIGN Error is the variation between the true mean value in the population of the variable of interest and the observed mean value obtained in the social research project. Types of Research Errors Several types of error can affect the quality of research design. A good research design made an attempts to control the various sources of error. Random sampling error Non-Sampling error a. Non-response error b. Response error I. Researcher error 1.Information error 2.Measurement error 3.Population definition error 4.Sampling frame error 5.Data Analysis Error Interviewer Error 1.Respondent Selection error 2.Questioning Error 3.Recording error 4.Cheating Error Respondent Error 1.Inability error 2.Unwillingness error 53
II.
III.
CHAPTERCHAPTER- 09 TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
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TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
Often, a hypothesis is a possible answer to the Research Question. -N.C. SMITH The formulation of hypotheses or propositions as to the possible answers to the research questions is an important step in the process of formulation of the research problem. MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS Hypothesis is a tentative proposition formulated for empirical test-ing TYPES OF HYPOTHESES Descriptive Hypotheses Relational Hypotheses Causal hypotheses Working Hypotheses Null Hypotheses Statistical Hypotheses Abraham Kaplan Common Sense Hypotheses Complex Hypotheses Analytical Hypotheses
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SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS Hypotheses can be derived from various sources Theory Observation Analogies Intuition and Personal Experiences Findings of Studies State of Knowledge Culture Continuity of Research THE FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS Helps Directions Specify the Source of Data Determine the Data Suggest type of research Helps Suitable Technique Development of Theory Possible to Test Theories Constructed Theory
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS An acceptable hypothesis should fulfill certain conditions Conceptual Clarity Specificity Testability Availability of Techniques Theoretical relevance Consistency Objectivity
STATISTICAL TESTING PROCEDURE State the null hypothesis Choose the statistical test Select the desired level of significance Compare the calculated difference value Interpret the test
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ONE-SAMPLE TESTS Parametric Tests Non-parametric tests
The formula for the chi-square (x2) test is
Oj = observed number of cases categorized in the category Ei = Expected number of cases in the ith category under Ho K = the number of categories
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A SUMMARY OF HYPOTHESIS TEST RELATED TO DIFFERENCES
Sl. No. 1. Sample One Sample Application Distribution Level of Scaling Non-Metric Suitable hypothesis Test 1. K.S. and chi-square for good of fit. 2. Run test for randomness 3. Binomial test for goodness of fit for dichotomous variables. 1. t-test, if variance is unknown 2. Z-test, if variance is known 1. Z-test 1. K-S-two-sample test for examining the equivalence of two distribution 1. Two-group t-test 2. F-test equality of variances 1. Z-Test 2. Chi-square test Mann-Whitney U-test is more powerful than the median test Paired t-test 1. McNemar test for binary variables. 2. Chi-square test Wilcoxon matched pairs signed ranks test is more powerful than the sign test.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
One Sample One Sample Two independent Two independent samples Two independent Samples Two independent samples Paired samples Paired samples Paired Samples
Means Proportions Distribution Means Proportions Rankings/ Medians Means Proportions Rankings/ Medians
Metric Metric Non-Metric Metric Metric Non-Metric Non-Metric Metric Non-metric Non-Metric
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CROSS TABULATION A cross tabulation describes two or more variables simultaneously. Statistics Associated with Cross Tabulation 1. Chi-square Formula
xpected requency computation v nr nc e! n

where, nr = Total number in the row nc = Total number in the column n = Total sample size
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2. Chi-square distribution 3. Phi Coefficient
2
Formula : J ! 4. Cramers V Cramers V is a modified version of the phi correlation co-efficient, and is used in tables larger than 2 x 2. Formula
2 /n min (r - 1), (c - 1)
5. Lambda coefficient 6. Symmetri Lambda It measures the overall improvement when prediction is done in both directions.
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CHAPTERCHAPTER- 10 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DESIGN
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SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DESIGN

Sampling Principle You may know by a handful of the whole sock - PROVERB The terminology Sampling indicates the selection of a part of a group or an aggregate with a view to obtaining information about the whole. STEPS IN DEVELOPING A SAMPLING PLAN The following are the logical steps involved in the sample execution.
1. Define the target 2. Select the Data Collection 3. Identify the Sampling Frame Needed 4. Select the Appropriate Sampling 5. Determine necessary sample size and overall contact 6. Create an operating plan for selecting sampling 7. Execute the overall plan
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CENSUS METHOD The object of a census or complete enumeration is to collect information for each and every unit of the population. TYPES OF SAMPLING
Element selection Probability Unrestricted Restricted Simple random Complex random Systematic Stratified Cluster Double
Representation Basis Non Probability Convenience Purposive Judgement Quota Snowball
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PROBABILITY SAMPLING Size of sample Probability of selection = Size of Population
DETERMINATION OF APPROPRIATE SAMPLING DESIGN

Research objectives Scope of the Research Availability of Resources Time Frame Advanced Knowledge of the Target Population Degree of Accuracy Perceived Statistical Analysis Needs
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sl.No. 1. I. Techniques Non probability sampling Convenience sampling Advantages Less expensive, less time consuming, most convenient Convenient, Low cost, not time consuming Simple method, easy to understand the field staff Can practice rare occasions Simple method, easily understood results projectable. Easy to make use, sampling frame not necessary, more representative ness. Includes all subpopulation, precision Easy to implement cost effective. Disadvantages Bias selection, lack of representative items, not suggested for descriptive and causal research
2.
Judgement sampling
Subjective in nature. Does not allow generalization.
3.
Quota sampling
Biased selection, no assurance of representativeness.
4. 5.
Snowball sampling II. Probability Simple random sampling
Time consuming, expensive method Difficult to construct sampling frame, expensive lower precision.
6.
Systematic sampling
Chances of biased sample selection.
7.
Stratified sampling
Expensive method difficult to select relevant variables.
8.
Cluster sampling
Difficult to compute and interpretations
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CHAPTERCHAPTER- 11 METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA
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METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

The success of an enquiry is based upon the proper collection of data. W.G.COCHRAN SOURCE OF DATA Data source can be broadly categorized into three types viz., primary, secondary and tertiary. Documentary Sources (Secondary Data) Books Report of Surveys Memories Accounts of Travels Historical Account Official Published Data Other Unpublished Record
Field Sources (Direct Sources) Direct Observation Information from the informants Information from witnesses
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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Data collection method is integral part of the research design SCHEDULE The schedule is the form containing some questions or blank which are to be filled by the workers after getting information from the informants. Purpose of Schedule To attain objectivity To Act as Memory
Essentials of a Good Schedule Type of Questions Open-end Questions Structured Questions Dichotomous Question Multiple-Choice Questions Leading Questions Ambiguous Questions Ranking Item Question
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QUESTIONNAIRE Form of Questionnaire Size of Questionnaire Appearance Clarity Sequence of Questions Catching interest
Factors affecting response Special Characteristics of The Groups Prestige Sponsoring Groups Importance of the Problem Under Study Nature of Questionnaire Nature of Reaction Size of Questionnaire Sequence of the Questions
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INTERVIEW Interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a person enters more or less imaginatively into the life of a comparative stranger. KINDS OF INTERVIEWS Structured Interview Unstructured Interview Focused Interview Repetitive Interview
TECHNIQUE OF INTERVIEW Establishing Contact Starting an Interview Establishing Rapport Recall Probe Questions Encouragement Guiding the Interview Recording Closing the Interview Report
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OBSERVATION Observation is probably the oldest method used by man in scientific investigation. KINDS OF OBSERVATION Participant Observation Non-Participant Observation Non-Controlled Observation Controlled Observation
LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION AS A METHOD OF SOCIAL RESEARCH Some of the occurrences may not be open to observation Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be Observed When Observer is at Hand Not all Occurrences Lend themselves to Study Observational Techniques
72

IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATION IN SOCIAL RESEARCH Simplest method Useful in Framing hypothesis Greater Accuracy More Convincing Results Test of Validity A common Method for All Sciences
OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION Warranty Cards Store Audits Pantry Audits Consumer panels Mechanical Devices
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PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES Word Association Test Sentence Completion Tests Story Completion Test Verbal Projection Tests Pictorial Techniques Thematic Appreciation Test (T.A.T) Rosenweiz Test Rorschach test Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT)
Play Techniques Quizzes, Tests and Examinations Sociometry
74

A COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN RESEARCH
Sl.No. 1. Methods of data collection Non probability sampling Convenience sampling Features Less expensive, less time consuming, most convenient. Advantages Bias selection, lack of representative items, not suggested for descriptive and causal research. Disadvantages Less reliability of data less chance of accuracy
2.
Primary datafield survey Interview - Personal
First hand and original informations, interview schedule, questionnaire, observation.
High sample control, covered both literate and illiterate, face-toface communication.
Expensive method chance of more response errors time consuming
3.
Telephone
Data collected through telephone.
Less expensive less chance of human error suitable for literature people.
No face-face-communication Non-Response is high ignore and rural areas.
4.
Mail
Data collected through postal communication. Data collected through electronic media.
Less expensive suitable for educated respondents. More accuracy
Ignore uneducated respondents. Illiterate ignored cheating error.
5.
Electronice-mail, internet
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CHAPTERCHAPTER- 12 MEASUREMENT OF SCALING TECHNIQUES
76
MEASUREMENT OF SCALING TECHNIQUES

Scaling the generation of a continuum on which measured, objects are located. - V.S.SRINIVASAN Meaning attitude Attitude is settled behaviour as specifying opinion. Selection of Measurement Scale Selection or construction of a measurement scale requires decision in the following six key areas Study Objective Response Form Degree of Preference Data Properties Number of Dimensions Scale Construction
77

METHODS OF SCALING RATING SCALES Some of the rating scales used often by researchers are explained below Dichotomous scale Category Scale Likert Scale Semantic differential scales Numerical Scale Itemized rating Fixed or constant sum scale Staple Scales Graphic rating scale Consensus Scale
RANKING SCALES Paired Comparison Scale Forced Ranking Scale Scalogram Analysis
78

A SUMMARY OF MEASUREMENT OF TECHNIQUES RELATED DIFFERENCES
Permissible Statistics Sl. No. 1. Scale Characteristics Examples Descriptive Inferential
Nominal
No order, distance or origin
Numbers, sex classification
Percentage, mode
Chi-square Binominal test
Ordinal
Order but no distance or unique origin
Preference rankings quality rankings
Percentile median
Rank-order correlation Friedman ANOVA
3.
Interval
Both order and distance but no unique origin
Temperature, attitudes, index numbers opinions
Range, mean, standard deviation
Product moment correlation t-test, ANOVA regression, factor analysis.
4.
Ratio
Order, distance and unique origin
Length, weight, age, income, market shares
Geometric mean Harmonic mean
Coefficient of variation.
79
CHAPTERCHAPTER- 13 PROCESSING OF DATA
80
PROCESSING OF DATA
Researcher should exercise good effort, however, will be vain if the collected data are not properly and analyzed. - C.A.MOSER EDITING OF DATA This will facilitate coding and tabulation of data. In fact, the editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires Field editing Central Editing CODING OF DATA The coding is necessary for the efficient analysis of data. CLASSIFICATION OF DATA In most research studies, voluminous raw data collected through a survey need to be reduced into homogeneous groups for any meaningful analysis. STATISTICAL SERIES A series is defined as a logical or systematic arrangement of observations or items VISUAL AIDS IN REPORTS Visual aids are an essential part of report. Carefully presented visual aids can make the report more interesting and understandable.
81
PROCESSING OF DATA
TYPES OF VISUALS Tables A table is a collection of information presented in columns and rows. Tables should contain enough information to enable the readers to understand its contents. Bar Graphs A bar chart depicts numbers by height or length of its rectangular bars. Pie charts A pie chart is used to show the relative sizes of parts of a whole. Pictograms A chart that uses symbols instead of words or numbers to portray data is known as pictogram. Organization Charts The organization chart illustrates the positions, units or functions of an organization and the way they interrelate. Decision Charts A decision chart or decision tree is a flow chart that uses graphs to explain whether or not to perform a certain action in a certain situation. Gantt Charts A Gantt chart represents the schedule of project. Photographs Photographs enable to capture the exact appearance of an object and uses visual appeals to capture the readers' attention
82
CHAPTERCHAPTER- 14 ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION
83
ANALYSIS OF DATA AND INTERPRETATION

Researchers background and philosophy affect the choice of a data analysis strategy. -E.JAMES These tools are summarized in the following list Measures of central tendency (averages) Dispersion Skewness, Kurtosis and Moments Correlation Regression Index numbers Analysis of time series Interpolation and extrapolation Association of attributes Probability Theoretical distribution Multivariate statistical techniques
84

A.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY (AVERAGES) SIGNIFICANCE OF AN AVERAGE To facilitate quick understanding of complex data To facilitate comparison To know about the universe from a sample To help in decision making To establish mathematical relationship
Kinds of Averages
Simple Arithmetic mean Weighted Geometric mean Mathematical Averages Harmonic mean

Quadratic mean Central Tendency (Averages) Averages of location (position) Median Mode
Moving average Commercial (Business) Averages Progressive average Composite average
85

B.
DISPERSION Concept of Variation The measures of variation are called averages of the second order. Purpose of Measuring Variation The following are the main purposes of measuring, dispersion.

To Test the reliability of an average To serve as a basis for control of variability To compare two or more series with regard to their variability To facilitate as a basis for further statistical analysis Methods of Measuring Dispersion The following are the important methods of studying variation.

Range Inter- quartile Range Mean-Variation Standard Deviation Lorenz Curve

86

SKEWNESS, KURTOSIS, MOMENTS
Symmetry (No Skewness) Skewness Average Quartile Curve X=M=Z 40 = 40 = 40 (Q3M) = (MQ1-) Normal Positive X>M>Z 32.1 > 30 > 10 (Q3M) > (MQ1-) Skewed to right Asymmetry (Skewness present) Negative X=M=Z 30 < 50 < 70 (Q3M) < (MQ1-) Skewed to the left
Kurtosis The expression kurtosis is used to describe the peakedness of a curve. Uses of Kurtosis in Research Measurements of kurtosis tell us the extent to which a distribution is more peaked or more flat topped than the normal curve. D.CORRELATION Correlation refers to the relationship of two or more variables. Types of correlation Correlation is classified into many types, but the important are: 1. Positive and negative, 2. Simple and multiple 3.Partial and total 4. Linear and non-linear non-
87

E. REGRESSION Regression help us to estimate one variable or the dependent variable from the other variable or the independent variable. INDEX NUMBERS An Index Number is a number which is used to measure the level of a certain phenomenon as compared to the level of the same phenomenon at some standard period. Types of Index Numbers a) Price Index b) Quantity Index c) Value Index The various methods of construction of index numbers are given below:
Methods Index Numbers
F.
Unweighted (Simple)
Weighted
Simple Aggregate
Simple average of price relative
Weighted Aggregate
Weighted average of price relative
88

G.
ANALYSIS OF TIME SERIES An arrangement of statistical data in accordance with time of occurrence or in a chronological order is called a time series.
Components Long-term Short-term
Secular Cyclical
Seasonal Irregular
Regular
89

H. INTERPOLATION AND EXTRAPOLATION Interpolation relates to the past, whereas extrapolation gives us the forecast for the future."
Method of interpolation The method of interpolation or extrapolation may be broadly classified: A. Graphic method B. Algebraic method The algebraic method may be: Binomial Expansion method Newton's method of Advancing Differences Newton's Gauss {Forward) method Newton's Gauss {Backward) method Newton's method of Backward Differences Newton's Divided Difference method Lagrange 's method Parabolic curve Fitting
ASSOCIATION OF ATTRIBUTES Statistics of attributes is based on descriptive character association of attribute is measured by the degree of relationship of two phenomena, whose size are not directly measurable, but studied by the presence or absence of a particular attribute.
90

I. PROBABILITY The word probable means likely or chance. Theorems of probability Some of the laws of probability to tackle complex situation. There are two important theorems. The addition theorem and The multiplication theorem THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTION The frequency distributions are of two types: Observed Frequency Distribution and Theoretical Frequency Distribution. The following are important distribution. Binomial Distribution Poisson Distribution Normal Distribution THEORETICAL DISTRIBUTION The frequency distributions are of two types: Observed Frequency Distribution and Theoretical Frequency Distribution. The following are important distribution. Binomial Distribution Poisson Distribution Normal Distribution
J.
K.

91

L. ADVANCED MULTI-VARIATE STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES Multivariate analysis refers to a group of statistical techniques used when there are two or more measurements on each element and the variables are analyzed simultaneously.
ependence M e th o d s
(Nonmetric)
One
One None u m ber of ependent v a ria b le s (Metric)
n te rd e p e n d a n c e m e th o d
o m in a l
ependent v a ria b le e v e l o f M e a s u re m e n t
n te rv a l o r ra tio
y y y
rd in a l
y y y y
y y
Discriminant analysis Cojoint
Spearmans Rank Correlation
Multiple regression ANOVA MANOVA Conjoint
Factor Cluster Perceptual Mapping
92

FACTOR ANALYSIS Factor analysis is the most often used multivariate technique in research studies especially in studies pertaining to social and behavioral sciences.
1. Formulate the problem
2. Construct the correlation matrix
3. Identify the method of factor analysis
4. Determine the number of factors
5. Rotate the factors
6. Interpret the factors
7. Calculate the factor scores
8. Select the surrogate variables
9. Determine the model fit
93

Uses of Factor Analysis in Research Interdependency and pattern delineation. Parsimony or data reduction Structure. Classification Scaling. Hypothesis testing. Data transformation Exploration Mapping Theory
CLUSTER ANALYSIS Cluster analysis, also called as classification analysis or numerical taxonomy is a class of techniques used to classify objects or cases into relatively homogeneous groups called clusters.
94

The steps are explained in the clustering procedure are listed below
2. Select a distance measure
3. Select a clustering procedure
4. Decide on the number of clusters
5. Interpret and Profile Clusters
6. Assess the validity of Clustering
95

Uses of Cluster Analysis in Research Segmenting the market Understanding buyer behaviour Identifying new product opportunities Selecting test markets Reducing data
DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS Discriminant analysis is a dependence multi variate technique. The discriminant analysis model involves the linear combination of the following form D = b0+b,X, + b2X2+b3X3+ + bkXk
D = Discriminant score bn = Discriminant coefficients or weights Xn = Predictors or independent variable
96

Steps in conducting two group discriminant analysis The steps in conducting two group discriminant analysis are discussed below:
2. Research design issues
3. Assumptions
4. Estimating the discritminant functions 5. Assess the validity of discriminant analysis 6. Interpretation of discriminant 7. Validation of discriminant results
97

A SUMMARY OF MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS RELATED DIFFERENCES
Sl. No. 1. Multivariate Techniques I. Dependence method Multiple Linear Regression Characteristics One dependent variable, more independent variable, metric Significance More accurate prediction complex simultaneous relationship, useful to social scientist Limitations Highly complicated.
2.
Non-Linear Regression
Polynomial regression model more than are independent variable Non-metric, not measurable on quantitative scale of numbers
Give a better prediction
Extremely difficult interpret co-efficient.
3.
Discriminants
Classify persons or objects, possible to predict categories, dichotomous classification user/non-user, high/low Useful in marketing research. Marketing product preferences, mass of data simplified used in exploratory research.
Interpretations becomes more difficult.
4. 5.
Canonical Analysis II. Interdependence methods factors Factors Analysis
Several dependent variables no metric Metric, Interdependence of inter relationships among a total set of variables.
Computed by computer only Complicated tool, unable to give unique solution.
6.
Cluster analysis
Classify persons or objects into a small number
Useful to marketing better understandings of buyer behaviour identifying homogeneous groups. Identification of attributes, useful in marketing field.
Lacks of standard statistical test consuming more time.
7.
Multidimensional scaling CMDS
To uncover the hidden structure of a set of data
Preferences are not clear. Empirical limitations extremely difficult to interpret result Not used frequently in research. Fails to capture utility function.
8.
Conjoint analysis
Joint effect of two or more attributes
Estimation of utility function used in decision rules
98
CHAPTERCHAPTER- 15 ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
99
ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

Researcher has the right to be treated ethically as well. - J.E.NELSON Public Incomplete Reporting Misleading Reporting Biased Research
I.
Reasons for Biased Research The following reasons for biased research are Improper research approach, Research design is faulty, Lack of scales are validity, Poorly designed questionnaire is used, Poor administered research, Inappropriate samples are collected, Improper statistical methods are employed, Poorly execute the process of research, Inappropriate statistical tools are used, and Inadequate explanations about the real facts.
100
ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

II.
Respondents Deceptive Practices Invasion of Privacy Lacking of concern for subjects Conducting a Survey to Planning Sugging Frugging Discomfort to Respondents Client Abuse of Research Desig Unnecessary Research Unqualified Researcher Disclosure of Identity Non-Confidential Misleading Presentations Researcher Improper Solicitation Proprietary Techniques Misrepresentation of Findings

III.
IV.

101
CHAPTERCHAPTER- 16 TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE IN RESEARCH
102
TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE IN RESEARCH

Hypothesis is a very useful tool to test the significance of difference. - KARL PEARSON Terms Associated with Test of Significance Parametric Tests Types of Parametric Tests Non-Parametric Tests Types of non-parametric Tests Large Sample Small sample Degree of Freedom (DF) P Value Parameter Standard Error Level of Significance Test Acceptance Region Test rejection region
103

Kinds of Tests Z-test t-test F-test Chi-Square Test Runs Test Binomial Test Mann-Whitney U Test Two sample Medium Test Wilcoxon matched pairs Signed ranks test Sign Test Kolmogov-Smirnov two sample test Kolmogorov Sminov one sample test
UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS TEST A single variable analysis is called univariable analysis.
104

BI-VARIATE ANALYSIS TEST Social Science researcher would generally come across situations or problems which are complex in nature, involving two or more variables, in which case, an analysis based on only one variable will not be suitable. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS TEST DEPENDENCE METHOD Multivariate analysis is the analysis of the simultaneous relationship among three or more phenomena Multivarite analysis approach can be classified into two categories. Functional methods or dependence method Structured method or Independence methods
DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS Discriminant analysis, a scoring system is used on the basis of which an individual or object is assigned a score. CONJOINT ANALYSIS Conjoint analysis is deals with the measurement of the joint effect of two or more attributes that are important from the point of the consumer.
105

PURPOSE OF CONJOINT ANALYSIS Conjoint analysis has been used in social, business and marketing research purposes. To determining the relative importance of attributes in the consumer choice process. To estimating market share of brands that differ in attribute levels. To determining the composition of the most-preferred brand. To segmenting the market based on similarity of preference for attribute levels. To appling in the areas of new product, identification, competitive analysis, pricing, market segmentation, advertising, and distribution.
FORMULATION OF CONJOINT ANALYSIS The results are interpreted and the reliability and validity assessed. There are six steps Formulate the problem Construct the stimuli Decide on the form of Input Date Select a conjoint Analysis Procedure Interpret Results Assess Reliability and validity.
106

MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING (MDS) Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a class of procedure for representing perceptions and preferences of respondents spatially by means of a visual display CONDUCTING MULTIMENTIONAL SCALING There are six steps involved in formulation of MDS. Formulate the problem Obtain input data Select an MDS procedure Decide on Number of Dimensions Label the Dimension and Interpret Configuration. Assesses Reliability and validity.
107
CHAPTERCHAPTER- 17 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
108
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Experimentation is a powerful tool at a disposal of researcher, that enables him to establish causal relationships between variables. - R.A.FISHER Experimental designs as powerful tools to study the cause and effects relationship amongst variables in research. TYPE OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Experimental research can be classified into two types: 1. Field experiments and 2. Laboratory Experiments. MAJOR EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Experimental designs can be classified into four major types 1. Randomization Completedly randomized design and randomized block design 2. Latin squares Design, 3. Factorial Design 4. Analysis of covariance.
109
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
LATIN SQUARE DESIGN Latin square design, it is necessary to assume that no interaction exist between the treatment effect and either block effect. Characteristics of Latin Squares

Balanced Arrangement of Data Different Latin Squares Comparisons among treatments Sources of Extraneous Variations
Scale of Measurement Some factors can be measured quantitatively, and different levels for them are chosen on and ordered scale. e.g. level of fertilizer dose, temperature are all factors of this type. NEED FOR A GOOD EXPERIMENT DESIGN Absence of Systematic Error Precision Range of Validity Simplicity Calculation of Uncertainty
110
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE Analysis of covariance is a combination of the two techniques such as analysis of variance and regression. It is the simultaneous study of several regression. Uses of Covariance in Research Helps in Randomized Experiments Uses of bias in observations studies Explain the Nature of Treatment Study Regression in Multiple Classification
Sl. No. 1. Experimental Tools Randomization Characteristics Equal chance of occurrence in an individual operation, cause and effect relationship of control group and test group Treatment of variables in different blocks, randomization treatments are assigned in blocks A balanced two way classification scheme, balanced arrangement of data. To evaluate the combined effect on the interaction effects of two or more variables. Exploratory research is used. Significance Unbiased estimate, frequently used in marketing, completely flexible Limitations No systematic treatments
2.
Randomized block design
Originated in agricultural research. Marketing field also applied.
Involves highly mathematical computation
3.
Latin squares
Several different latin square can be constructed, comparisons among treatments. Simultaneously in applied in marketing an experiment, agriculture and
Experimental error must be smaller. Too numerous and complex
4.
Factorial Experiments
111
CHAPTERCHAPTER- 18 THE RESEACH REPORT WRITING
112
THE RESEACH REPORT WRITING

A principle of report presentation that states, keep it simple and straight forward. -M.DANIEL
Types of Reports Oral Report Written Reports Time Interval Reports Special Reports Functional Reports I. Informational Report II. Examination Report III. Analytical Report Field Report Physical Report Relationship Report Administrative Report Professional Report Independent Report Employment Report Private Report Government Report Formal Report Informal

113

STAGES IN REPORT WRITING Pre-writing Stage Analyzing the Situation Problem Definition Developing the Statement of Purpose Developing a Preliminary Outline Preparing the work plan Investigating information Adapting the report Selecting the Appropriate Channel and Medium Writing Stage Deciding the Format and Length Pre-printed form Memo Letter Manuscript Choosing the approach Structuring the reports Composing Reports Post-Writing Stage Revision Production the Report Proofreading

114

Integral parts of a report The preliminaries Letter- of transmitted Title page Preface Table of contents Guidelines LIst of table LIst of illustrations The text Introduction Background Problem statement Research objectives Methodology Analysis of study and findings and conclusion Reference material Bibliography Appendix
115

RESEARCH PROPOSAL A research proposal is also a type of research report prepared for getting the permission to proceed with the research work. Structure of the Research Proposal Executive Summary Problem Statement Research Objectives Review of Literature Benefits of the Study Research Design Qualifications of the Researcher Budget Schedule Facilities and special resources PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH REPORT WRITING Objectivity Coherent Concrete Style Impersonal style Absolute clarity Neat and tidy Simple Language Comprehensibility Physical presentation
116

PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH REPORTS Presentation has become an important communication medium in organizations because a research report is properly understood if it is accompanied by a presentation. Communication Dimensions The major elements of communication dimension, which are relevant to a presentation, are Purpose Audience Media Message Time Place Cost
117

Audio Visual Aids Audio Tape recorder Compact disc Visual (a) Non-Projected Black board Film charts Models. (b) Projected Epidiascope Overhead Slide Film strip Slide projector with a timer
118
THANK YOU
119

Welcome To Research Methodology

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WELCOME TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTERCHAPTER-02 RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

RESEARCH IN BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

CHAPTERCHAPTER-03 DECISIONAL RESEARCH

CHAPTERCHAPTER-04 BUSINESS RESEARCH

CHAPTERCHAPTER- 05 TYPES OF RESEARCH & APPROACHES

TYPES OF RESEARCH & APPROACHES

TYPES OF RESEARCH & APPROACHES

TYPES OF RESEARCH & APPROACHES

CHAPTERCHAPTER- 06 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

CHAPTERCHAPTER- 07 ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH

CHAPTERCHAPTER- 08 RESEARCH DESIGN

CHAPTERCHAPTER- 09 TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

The formula for the chi-square (x2) test is

xpected requency computation v nr nc e! n

CHAPTERCHAPTER- 10 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DESIGN

SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DESIGN

SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DESIGN

Representation Basis Non Probability Convenience Purposive Judgement Quota Snowball

SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DESIGN

DETERMINATION OF APPROPRIATE SAMPLING DESIGN

SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DESIGN

Subjective in nature. Does not allow generalization.

Biased selection, no assurance of representativeness.

Snowball sampling II. Probability Simple random sampling

Chances of biased sample selection.

Expensive method difficult to select relevant variables.

Difficult to compute and interpretations

CHAPTERCHAPTER- 11 METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

Play Techniques Quizzes, Tests and Examinations Sociometry

METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

Primary datafield survey Interview - Personal

First hand and original informations, interview schedule, questionnaire, observation.

Expensive method chance of more response errors time consuming

Data collected through telephone.

No face-face-communication Non-Response is high ignore and rural areas.

Less expensive suitable for educated respondents. More accuracy

Ignore uneducated respondents. Illiterate ignored cheating error.

CHAPTERCHAPTER- 12 MEASUREMENT OF SCALING TECHNIQUES