Thesis 7

naveed@lrk.szabist.edu.pk

Scales


What is attitude and how it is measured? Attitude scales

   

Numerical Scales Constant-Sum Scals Stapel Scales Graphic Rating Scales

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Sampling


Concept of Sampling


Example 1: Average age of students in our class



Estimation

Example 2: Opinion Polls before election



Prediction

Sampling
Selection of few sampling units

Study population:
Sampling Units

Samples

Parameters ( , )

Estimate

Statistics ( , S) Collect information from these people to find answers to your research questions

From sample findings, you make an estimate of their prevalence in the study


Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the sampling population) to become the basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of information, situation or outcome regarding the bigger group.
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Sampling

Advantages and disadvantages



It saves time as well as financial and human resources.

You may compromise the level of accuracy in your findings you do not find out the information about the populations characteristics but only estimate or predict them.

Terminologies


Population Vs Universe:


A finite group (of individual) is called population (N) whereas a non-finite (infinite) group is called universe The small group from whom you collect the required information to estimate the population parameters (e.g. average). The number of selected units sample size (n) The way you select the sample units / elements

Sample Vs Sample size



Sampling Design


A census is a investigation of all the individual elements of a population Sampling Statistics Vs Population Parameters


Findings based on the information obtained from your respondents (sample) The estimates arrived at from sample statistics
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Principles of Sampling


Theory of sampling is guided by three principles



Very Simple Example: To determine the average age of population

Individual A Age (years) 18 20 23 25 86 21.5
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Population =>

B C D

Parameters

Principles of Sampling

Now lets assume that you want to select a sample of two individuals to make an estimation of average age of the population

According to the theory of probability possible combinations of two

we can have six

Principles of Sampling
Selection of Second element

Selection of First element

B C D A C D A B D A B C

A+ B A+ C A+ D B+C B+D

A B Population C D

C+D

Let us take each of the pairs to calculate the average age of the sample units
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Principles of Sampling
Sample A+B A+C A+D B+C B+D C+D Average Age ( ) (Sample Statistics) 19.0 20.5 21.5 21.5 22.5 24.0 Population mean (Population Parameters) 21.5 21.5 21.5 21.5 21.5 21.5 Difference -2.5 -1.5 0.0 0.0 +1.0 +2.5

Principle 1: In a majority of cases of sampling there will be a difference between the sample statistics and true population mean, which is attributable to the selection of the sample units.

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Principles of Sampling
Let us take a sample of three individuals there are four possible combinations

Sample A+B+C A+B+D A+C+D B+C+D

Average Age ( ) (Sample Statistics) 20.33 21.00 22.00 22.67

Population mean (Population Parameters) 21.5 21.5 21.5 21.5

Difference -1.17 -0.5 +0.5 +1.17

Difference is between -1.17 and +1.17

Principle 2: The greater the sample size, the more accurate will be the estimate of the true population.

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Principles of Sampling


To understand the third principle, let us continue with the same example but use slightly different data. Suppose the ages of four individuals are markedly different:


A=18, B=26, C=32, D=40

  

Let us follow same procedure (selecting samples of two first and then three) Average age in case of two -7.00 and +7.00 Average age in case of three -3.67 and +3.67 In both cases, diff. is greater than previous one attributable to the greater diff. in the ages of units thus sampling population is more heterogeneous in term of age.

Principle 3: The greater the difference in the variable under study in a population for a given sample size, the greater will be the difference b/w the sample statistics and the true population mean.
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Stages in the Selection of a Sample

Define the target population

Select a sampling frame

Determine if a probability or nonprobability sampling method will be chosen

Plan procedure for selecting sampling units

Determine sample size

Select actual sampling units

Conduct fieldwork

Define the target population



The complete group of specific population elements relevant to the research. A target population may be, for example, all faculty members in the Department of Management Sciences in the SZABIST LRK, all housewives in SZABIST, All the male students of SZABIST LRK, and so on.

The question must be answered:



To Whom Do We Want to Talk? See Exhibit 16.4 operationally defining a Household Member


Operationally define


Zikmund, p# 378

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Sampling Frame


A list of elements from which the sample may be drawn also called Working population Examples: student telephone directory (for the student population), the list of companies on the stock exchange, the directory of medical doctors and specialists, the yellow pages, Mailing lists - data base marketers Sampling frame error occurs when population is not accurately represented in the sampling frame

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Sampling Units


The sampling unit is a single element or group of elements subject to selection in a sample


Example: every 25th name on a complete list of airline passengers.

Primary Sampling Units (PSU) Secondary Sampling Units Tertiary Sampling Units
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Sampling Errors


Random Sampling Error This is defined as the difference between the sample result and the result of a census conducted using identical procedures and is the result of chance variation in the selection of sampling units If samples are selected properly (for e.g. through the technique of randomization), the sample is usually deemed to be a good approximation of the population and thus capable of delivering an accurate result Usually, the random sampling error (arising from statistical fluctuation) is small, but sometimes the margin of error can be significant
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Sampling Errors


Systematic (Non-Sampling) Errors These errors result from factors such as an improper research design that causes response error or from errors committed in the execution of the research, errors in recording responses and non-responses from individuals who were not contacted or who refused to participate Both Random sampling errors and systematic (nonsampling) errors reduce the representativeness of a sample and consequently the value of the information which is derived by researchers from it
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Other Errors


Sampling frame error

Random sampling error

Nonresponse error

http://www.statcan.gc.ca/edu/power-pouvoir/ch6/nse-endae/5214806-eng.htm

Graphical Depiction of Sampling Errors

Sampling Frame

Planned Sample

Respondents (actual sample)

Non-Response Error Sampling Frame Error Random Sampling Error Total Population
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Types of Sample Design Method



There are different types of sample designs based on two factors



The representation basis



Probability sampling based on the concept of random selection Non-probability sampling non-random sampling

The element selection technique



Restricted when each sample element is drawn individually from the population at large Unrestricted all other forms of sampling
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CHART SHOWING BASIC SAMPLING DESIGNS

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Non-probability sampling


An arbitrary means of selecting sampling units based on subjective considerations, such as personal judgment or convenience. Items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher


his choice concerning the items remains supreme

Two main classes

 

Convenience Sampling Purposive Sampling

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Convenience Sampling - haphazard or accidental



This is a sampling technique which selects those sampling units most conveniently available at a certain point in, or over a period of time
 

Major advantages quick, convenient and economical Major disadvantage the sample may not be representative Convenience sampling is best used for the purpose of exploratory research and supplemented subsequently with probability sampling

Examples: Product contests, student study based on a single class

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Judgment (purposive) Sampling



An experienced individual selects the sample based on his or her judgment about some appropriate characteristics required of the sample members Example 1: The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is based on a judgment sample of market-based items, housing costs, and other selected goods and services which are representative for most of the overall population in terms of their consumption Example 2: Attempts to forecast the election results by selection of certain voting districts which serve as indicators for the national voting trend

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Quota Sampling


The researcher ensures that certain characteristics of a population are represented in the sample to an extent which is he or she desires


Example 1: A researcher wants to determine through interview, the demand for Product X in a district which is very diverse in terms of its ethnic composition. If the sample size is to consist of 100 units, the number of individuals from each ethnic group interviewed should correspond to the groups percentage composition of the total population of that district Example 2: To determine the average age of students (male) of a class room by selecting only 20 males.
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Quota Sampling


Quota Sampling has advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages include the speed of data collection, less cost, the element of convenience, and representativeness (if the subgroups in the sample are selected properly) related information (sample frame) do not need any sample

Disadvantages: as the sample is not probability one, the findings cannot be generalized to the total population

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Snowball Sampling


The process of selecting a sample using network to start with a few individuals or groups then additional respondents are identified based on information provided by the first group of respondents.
The advantage smaller sample sizes and costs Disadvantage the second group of respondents suggested by the first group may be very similar and not representative of the population with that characteristic

 

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Probability sampling


Also known as random sampling or chance sampling

Every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample

It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical process

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Simple Random Sampling In brief, the implications of random sampling (or simple random sampling) are:


It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the sample; and all choices are independent of one another. It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen.

Keeping this in view



a sample which is chosen in such a way that each of the possible samples has the same probability, , of being selected

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Simple Random Sampling - Example

A certain finite population consisting of six elements (say a, b, c, d, e, f ) i.e., N = 6. Suppose that we want to take a sample of size n = 3 from it. Then there are = 20 possible distinct samples of the required size, and they consist of the elements abc, abd, abe, abf, acd, ace, acf, ade, adf, aef, bcd, bce, bcf, bde, bdf, bef, cde, cdf, cef, and def. If we choose one of these samples in such a way that each has the probability 1/20 of being chosen, we will then call this a random sample

SPSS Demo
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Representativeness of Sample


Representativeness can be determined by aligning the sample statistics and population parameter via:
 

Measuring the central tendency Measuring the Dispersion

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Measures of Central Tendency



The purpose of measures of central tendency is to determine the average value in a set of values There are three measures of central tendency:
  

(Arithmetic) Mean Median Mode

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Measures of Central Tendency (Arithmetic Mean)

The arithmetic mean is the average of all the values under consideration

Branch 1 2 3 4

Revenue 50,000,000 150,000,000 40,000,000 60,000,000

Total = 300,000,000
Arithmetic Mean = 300,000,000 / 4 = 75,000,000

Measures of Central Tendency (Median) The Median is the midpoint of the distribution of values under consideration
Salesperson 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Number of Sales Calls 4 3 2 5 3 3 1 5

Median = 3

1 2 3 3 3 4 5 5

Measures of Central Tendency (Mode) The Mode is the value that occurs most frequently in the distribution of values under consideration
Salesperson 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Number of Sales Calls 4 3 2 5 3 3 1 5

Mode = 3

Measures of Dispersion

Measures of dispersion provide an indication of the tendency of value to depart from their central tendency Two sets of values may have the same central tendency, but their dispersion may differ significantly

Measures of Dispersion (The Range)

The Range is the simplest measure of dispersion of values and is defind as the distance between the smallest and the highest value (i.e. the extreme values) in a frequency distribution

Measures of Dispersion (The Standard Deviation)

The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance and is considered a very accurate measure of variation or dispersion in a set of values The standard deviation is preferred by business researchers over the variance If the set of values is based on a sample, it is important to note that the standard deviation of the sample may differ from the standard deviation of the whole population

Measures of Dispersion (The Variance)



The variance is another very useful measure of the level of dispersion or variability in a set of values The variance is computed by squaring the deviation scores, summing them all up, and then dividing by the sample size minus one The larger the value of the variance, the larger is the distance from the arithmetic mean

SPSS Demo .

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Systematic Sampling An initial starting point is selected by a random process, after which every nth number on the list is selected to constitute part of the sample


Example: From a list of 1500 name entries, a name on the list is randomly selected and then (say) every 25th name thereafter. The sampling interval in this case would equal 25. For systematic sampling to work best, the list should be random in nature and not have some underlying systematic pattern

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Stratified Sampling


This is a technique which in which simple random subsamples are drawn from within different strata that share some common characteristic Example: The student body of SZABIST LRK is divided into two groups (management science, Computer Science) and from each group, students are selected for a sample using simple random sampling in each of the two groups, whereby the size of the sample for each group is determined by that groups overall strength Stratified Sampling has the advantage of giving more representative samples and less random sampling error; the disadvantage lies therein, that it is more complex and information on the strata may be difficult to obtain
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There are other specialized techniques of sampling such as: Cluster Sampling Multistage Area Sampling Internet Sampling

  

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