Hormones and the Endocrine System

Adapted from:
PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

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Exocrine vs. Endocrine Glands Exocrine Glands- retain their ducts that carry secretions to the surface and is transported to the target organs

Endocrine Glands- do not retain their ducts ; ductless, secretions are carried into blood and transported to target organs by blood

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 Overview: The Bodys Long-Distance Regulators An animal hormone

Is a chemical signal that is secreted into the circulatory system and communicates regulatory messages within the body

Hormones may reach all parts of the body

But only certain types of cells, target cells, are equipped to respond
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Concept 1 The endocrine system and the nervous system act individually and together in regulating an animals physiology Animals have two systems of internal communication and regulation
The nervous system and the endocrine system

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 Negative feedback
Regulates many hormonal pathways involved in homeostasis

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Concept 2 Hormones and other chemical signals bind to target cell receptors, initiating pathways that culminate in specific cell responses Hormones convey information via the bloodstream
To target cells throughout the body

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Classes of Hormones
Three major classes of molecules function as hormones in vertebrates
Proteins and peptides Amines derived from amino acids Steroids

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Major Human Endocrine Glands

Hypothalamus Pineal gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands

Adrenal glands Pancreas Ovary (female)

Testis (male)

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Human Endocrine Glands and Hormones

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Hypothalamus Produces the following hormones: - ADH and Oxytocin, which are then stored in the posterior pituitary - Releasing hormones, which stimulate the anterior pituitary to release its hormones

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ADH and Oxytocin

- Produced in hypothalamus, stored and released from the posterior pituitary

Hypothalamus

Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus

Axon

Posterior pituitary

Anterior pituitary

HORMONE

ADH

Oxytocin

Figure 45.7

TARGET

Kidney tubules

Mammary glands, uterine muscles

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Posterior Pituitary Hormones The two hormones released from the posterior pituitary ( but produced by hypothalamus)
Oxytocin ADH

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 Oxytocin
Induces uterine contractions and milk ejection

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Enhances water reabsorption in the kidneys

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ADH- Anti-diuretic Hormone

Increases water reabsorption in the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the kidney
Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus Thirst Drinking reduces blood osmolarity to set point Pituitary gland ADH Increased permeability Distal tubule Collecting duct STIMULUS: The release of ADH is triggered when osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus detect an increase in the osmolarity of the blood H2O reabsorption helps prevent further osmolarity increase

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) enhances fluid retention by making the kidneys reclaim more water.

Homeostasis: Blood osmolarity

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Releasing Hormones
Other hypothalamic cells produce releasing hormones That are secreted into the blood and transported to the anterior pituitary, stimulate anterior pituitary to release its hormones

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones The anterior pituitary

Produces both tropic and nontropic hormones TROPIC Hormone- a hormones that stimulates another gland to secrete their hormone/s

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Tropic Hormones The four strictly tropic hormones are

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Luteinizing hormone (LH) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Each tropic hormone acts on its target endocrine tissue

To stimulate release of hormone(s) with direct metabolic or developmental effects
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Nontropic Hormones The nontropic hormones produced by the anterior pituitary include
Prolactin Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) F-endorphin

Non-Tropic and Tropic: Growth Hormone

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus

Portal vessels

Hypothalamic releasing hormones (red dots)

Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary Pituitary hormones (blue dots)

HORMONE

FSH and LH

TSH

ACTH

Prolactin

MSH

Endorphin

Growth hormone

TARGET

Testes or ovaries

Thyroid

Adrenal cortex

Mammary glands

Melanocytes

Pain receptors in the brain

Liver

Bones

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Non-Tropic Hormones Prolactin stimulates lactation in mammals MSH influences skin pigmentation in some vertebrates
And fat metabolism in mammals

Endorphins
Inhibit the sensation of pain

Growth hormone (GH)

Promotes growth directly and has diverse metabolic effects
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Concept 4 Nonpituitary hormones help regulate metabolism, homeostasis, development, and behavior Many nonpituitary hormones
Regulate various functions in the body

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Thyroid Hormones
The thyroid gland
Consists of two lobes located on the ventral surface of the trachea Produces two iodine-containing hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) Its secretion is stimulated by TSH from anterior pituitary T3 is the active form

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 The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

Control the secretion of thyroid hormones through two negative feedback loops
Hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary

TSH

Thyroid

Figure 45.9

T3

T4

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Thyroid Hormones
Play crucial roles in stimulating metabolism and influencing development and maturation

Hyperthyroidism, excessive secretion of thyroid hormones Hypothyroidism, lack of thyroid secretion

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Calcitonin The thyroid gland also produces calcitonin

Which functions in calcium homeostasis

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Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitonin: Control of Blood Calcium

Two antagonistic hormones, parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
Play the major role in calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis in mammals

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Maintaining Blood Calcium Level

Thyroid gland releases calcitonin. Calcitonin

Stimulates Ca2+ deposition in bones

Reduces Ca2+ uptake in kidneys

STIMULUS: Rising blood Ca2+ level Homeostasis: Blood Ca2+ level (about 10 mg/100 mL) Blood Ca2+ level rises to set point Stimulates Ca2+ release from bones Parathyroid gland

Blood Ca2+ level declines to set point

STIMULUS: Falling blood Ca2+ level

PTH Increases Ca2+ uptake in intestines Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Stimulates Ca2+ uptake in kidneys

 Calcitonin, secreted by the thyroid gland

Stimulates Ca2+ deposition in the bones and secretion by the kidneys, thus lowering blood Ca2+ levels

PTH, secreted by the parathyroid glands

Has the opposite effects on the bones and kidneys, and therefore raises Ca2+ levels Promotes intestinal uptake of Ca2+ from food

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Insulin and Glucagon: Control of Blood Glucose Two types of cells in the pancreas
Secrete insulin and glucagon, antagonistic hormones that help maintain glucose homeostasis and are found in clusters in the islets of Langerhans

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 Glucagon
Is produced by alpha cells

Insulin
Is produced by beta cells

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Maintenance of glucose homeostasis

Insulin Beta cells of pancreas are stimulated to release insulin into the blood. Liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen. STIMULUS: Rising blood glucose level (for instance, after eating a carbohydraterich meal) Blood glucose level declines to set point; stimulus for insulin release diminishes. Body cells take up more glucose.

Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (about 90 mg/100 mL)

Blood glucose level rises to set point; stimulus for glucagon release diminishes.

STIMULUS: Dropping blood glucose level (for instance, after skipping a meal)

Alpha cells of pancreas are stimulated to release glucagon into the blood. Liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose into blood. Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Glucagon

Target Tissues for Insulin and Glucagon Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by
Promoting the cellular uptake of glucose Slowing glycogen breakdown in the liver

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 Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by

Stimulating the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver Stimulating the breakdown of fat and protein into glucose

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Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes mellitus, perhaps the best-known endocrine disorder

Is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues Is marked by elevated blood glucose levels

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 Type I diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent diabetes)

Is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys the beta cells of the pancreas

Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-dependent diabetes)

Is characterized commonly by reduced responsiveness of target cells due to some change in insulin receptors

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Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress The adrenal glands (Suprarenal gland)

Are adjacent to the kidneys Are actually made up of two glands: the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex

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Adrenal Medulla The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine

Are secreted in response to stress-activated impulses from the nervous system Mediate various fight-or-flight responses

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Stress Hormones from the Adrenal Cortex Hormones from the adrenal cortex
Also function in the bodys response to stress Classes of steroid hormones

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Adrenal Cortex Hormones 1. Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol

Influence glucose metabolism and the immune system

2. Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone

Affect salt and water balance

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Aldosterone
The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
Is part of a complex feedback circuit that functions in homeostasis
Increased Na+ and H2O reabsorption in distal tubules Homeostasis: Blood pressure, volume STIMULUS: The juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) responds to low blood volume or blood pressure (such as due to dehydration or loss of blood)

Aldosterone The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) leads to an increase in blood volume and pressure.

Adrenal gland

Arteriole constriction

Angiotensin II Angiotensinogen

Distal tubule JGA

Renin

Renin production

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Gonadal Sex Hormones The gonadstestes and ovaries

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 The testes primarily produce testosterone

Which stimulate the development and maintenance of the male reproductive system Sperms are formed in the seminiferous tubules while interstitial cells (Leydig) produce testosterone

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 Testosterone causes an increase in muscle and bone mass

Figure 45.14
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Secreted in the Ovary by Follicles Estrogens Are responsible for the maintenance of the female reproductive system and the development of female secondary sex characteristics Progesterone
Are primarily involved in preparing and maintaining the uterus

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Melatonin The pineal gland, located within the brain

Secretes melatonin

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 Release of melatonin
Is controlled by light/dark cycles

The primary functions of melatonin

Appear to be related to biological rhythms

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LAB: Histology of Some Endocrine Organs 1. Ovary 2. Testis 3. Pancreatic islets 4. Adrenal Gland 5. Thyroid 6. Pituitary Gland

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OVARY- page 149 Identify: follicle - Ovum- egg cell ( secondary oocyte stage) - Granulosa cells- cells found within follicle - Antrum- fluid-filled cavity of follicle - Zona pellucida- clear area between plasma membrane of ovum and corona radiata - Corona radiata- cells surrounding ovum What is ovulation?
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TESTIS- page 150 Identify: - interstitial cells of Leydig - germinal cells ( on the periphery) - spermatozoa - lumen of seminiferous tubule Trace the pathway of sperms from epididymis to urethra and then out

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Pancreatic Islets- page 149 Acini- dark; exocrine cells Pancreatic islets- light patches

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Adrenal Gland- page 151 Cortex- outer part; secretes corticosteroid hormones 1. Mineralocorticoids- salt balancing hormone(aldosterone) 2. Glucocoticoids- glucose-balancing hormone Medulla- inner part; secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine

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Adrenal Gland ( cont.): identify the ff: Capsule Zona glomerulosa ( outer layer of cortex) Zona fasciculata (middle layer of cortex) Zona reticularis (inner layer of cortex Adrenal medulla

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Thyroid Gland- page 152 Functional units: follicles- secrete T3 and T4 Parafollicular cells- secrete calcitonin Identify: - follicle - parafollicular cells - follicular cells - colloid
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Pituitary Gland- pages 150-152 Anterior Pituitary- (Adenohypophysis)secretes ACTH, TSH, FSH, LH, prolactin, GH > chromophobe- no stain, not involved in hormone
production > chromophils- with stain, produce hormones ( acidophils are red-staining and basophils are blue-staining) > sinusoids- capillaries

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Posterior Pituitary- (Neurohypophysis)secretes ADH and oxytocin > contains nerve fibers and pituicytes

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Clinical Diagnosis of Diabetes Using Simulated Blood and Urine

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Diabetes Metabolic disease that results when the pancreas produces little or no insulin, or when the tissue cells fail to respond to insulin

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Type I: IDDM ( Juvenile Onset) Most serious Between 5-10% of all cases Auto-immune disorder Beta cell of the pancreatic islet is destroyed No insulin is produced Insulin injections are required

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Type II : NIDDM ( Maturity-Onset) Accounts for 90% of cases Affect people over age of 55 Obese &/or hypertensives are at-risk Familial in nature 80% of patients diagnosed are overweight, but only 1/3 of all type II patients show signs of the disease

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Type III: Gestational Diabetes Occurs in 3-5% of all pregnancies Affects minorities the most Begins between 24-28th week of pregnancy Produces enough insulin but hormones produced by placenta can block insulin production Insulin resistant, but disappears after delivery of baby Patients are at greater risk of developing type II
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Common Symptoms in all three types: Frequent urination- polyuria Excessive thirst- polydipsia Increased hunger Blurred vision Fatigue Slow healing of sores/wounds Tingling/numbness in extremities Unexplained weight loss
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Diagnosis Normal blood sugar level: 70-120 mg/100 ml of blood Fasting blood sugar level- test urine and blood levels of glucose

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DO IT RIGHT FOR OUR FAMILY

CHILDREN BECOME WHAT THEY SEE

1 2 3

EAT RIGHT EXERCISE REGULARLY MINIMISE STRESS

AND MAKE IT A LIFE-LONG HABIT

Love life, and live it to its fullest in happiness and health

- Dr Myron Wentz
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