DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM

Part I - Foundation
Chapter 3 Network and Inter-network

Table of contents
Types of networks
LAN, WANs, MANs,

Networking principles
transfer mode, switching schemes protocol suites, routing, congestion control

Sample protocols
Mobile-IP, TCP/UDP, Wireless LAN

Types of Networks
LANs (Local Area Networks)
technology suitable for small area, usu. wire/fibre

WANs (Wide Area Networks)

large distances, inter-city/country/continental

MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks)

intra-city, cable based, multimedia

Wireless networks
WLANs, WPANs

Distinguished by technology, not only distances.

Principles of computer networking

Every network has:
An architecture or layers of protocols Packet switching for communication Route selection and data streaming Comm Subsystems (network technologies rest on):
Transmission media: wires, cables, fiber, wireless channels; Hardware devices: routers, switches, bridges, hubs, repeaters, network interfaces/card/transceivers Software components: protocol stacks, comm handlers/drivers, OS primitives, network-focus APIs

Hosts
The computers and end-devices that use the comm subsystem

Node
Any computer or switching device attached to a network.

Subnet:
A single cluster or collection of nodes, which reach each other on the same physical medium and capable of routing outgoing and incoming messages The Internet is a collection of several subnets (or intranets)

Networking issues for distributed systems Initial requirements for DS applications:

ftp, rlogin, email, newsgroup.

Subsequent generation of DS applications:

on-line shared resources

Current requirements:
performance, reliability, scalability, mobility, security, QoS, multicasting

Performance
Key: time to deliver unit(s) of messages between a pair of interconnected computers/devices Parameters:
Latency(delay) from sending out of outgoing-buffer and receiving into incoming-buffer. Usually due to software overheads, traffic load, and path selection. Data transfer/bit rate: speed of data transfer between 2 computers (bps). Usually due to physical properties of the medium.

The time required for a network to transfer a message containing length bits between two computers is:
Message transmission time = latency + length/data transfer rate

Performance
Bandwidth vs. bit-rate
The total system bandwidth (volume of data sent and received in a unit time, e.g., per sec.) is a measure of its throughput Bit rate or transfer rate is restricted to the mediums ability to propagate individual bits/signals in a unit time In most LANs, e.g., Ethernets, when full transmission capacity is devoted to messaging (with little or no latency), then bandwidth and bit-rate are same in measure Local memory vs network resources:
Applications access to shared resources on same network usually under msec Applications access to local memory usually under msec(1000x faster) However, for high speed network web-server, with caches, the access time is much faster (than local disk access due to hard disk latency)

Scalability (Internet and DSs)

Future growth of computing nodes of Internet Requires substantial changes to routing and addressing schemes. Current traffic on Internet approx. measured by the latencies, which seem to have reduced Future growth and sustainability depend on economies of use, charge rate, locality/ placement of shared resource

Reliability
Failures are typically, not due to the physical medium, but at the end-end (at host levels) software (application-level), therefore, error detection/correction is at this level. The communication subsystem need not be error-free (made transparent/ hidden to user) because reliability is somewhat guaranteed at the send/receiver ends (where errors may be caused by, e.g., buffer overflow, clock drifts causing premature timeouts)
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Security Most intranets are protected from external (Internet-wide) DSs by firewall A firewall runs on a gateway
the entry/exit point of the corporate intranet

A firewall is usually configured based on corporate security policy, and filters incoming and outgoing messages
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Security
Grant access to world-or Internet-wide resources, end-to-end authentication, privacy, and security are needed to allow DSs to function
Ex: techniques are Cryptographic and Authentication
usually implemented at a level above the communication subsystem

Virtual Private Network (VPN) security concept allows intranet-level protection of such features/devices as local routers and secure links to mobile devices
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Mobility
Need wireless to support portable computers and hand-held devices Wireless links are susceptible to, e.g., eavesdropping, distortions in medium, out-of-sight/range transmitters/receivers Current addressing and routing schemes are based on wired technologies, which have been adapted and, therefore, not perfect and need extensions

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QoS (Quality of Service) The ability of meeting deadlines and user requirements in transmitting/processing streams of real-time multimedia data
Ex., QoS requirements: guaranteed bandwidth, timely delivery or bounded latencies, or dynamic readjustments to requirements
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Multicasting
Most transmissions are point-to-point, but several involve one-to-many (either one-to-all broadcast or selective broadcast multicast) Simply sending the same message from one node to several destinations is inefficient Multicasting technique allows single transmission to multiple destination (simultaneously) by using special addressing scheme

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Types of Networks - LANs

Confined to smaller, typically, 2.5km diameter spread Higher speed, single medium for interconnection (twisted pair, coax, opt). Segment: a section of cable that serves a department or a floor of a building and may have many computers attached. No routing is required within segmentsall point-to-point (from hub), Larger local networks are composed of many segments. Inter-segment connections via switches/hubs. The total system bandwidth is high, low latency, low error rate. E.g., Ethernet, token ring, slotted ring protocols, wired. (1) Ethernet 100/1000Mbps, (2) ATM using frame cells and optical fills the gap but expensive for LAN
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LAN example: the old SoCS

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Wide area networks (WANs)

Worldwide, lower speeds over sets of varying types of circuits with routers between nodes that are often in different organizations and may be separated by large distances. High latency (due to switching and route searching) between 0.1-0.5s Signalling speed around 3x105km/s (bounds latency) plus propagation delay (round-trip) of about 0.2s if using satellite/geostationary dishes; generally slower at 10-100kbps or best 1-2Mbps (million bits per second)
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Metropolitan area networks (MANs)

MANs: confined to extended, regional area, typically, up to 50km spread Based on high-bandwidth copper and fiber optics for multimedia (audio/video/voice),
Ex., technologies: ATM, high-speed Ethernet (IEEE 802.6 protocols for MANs), DSL (digital subscriber line) using ATM switches to switch digitized voice over twisted pair @ 0.256Mbps within 1.5km, cable modem uses coax @ 1.5Mpbs using analog signalling on TV networks and longer distances than DSL

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Wireless networks

Wireless: (connecting portable, wearable devices using access points) WLAN (wireless local area networks)
IEEE802.11 (WaveLAN) provides data transmission at 2-11 Mbps over 150m.

WPAN (wireless personal area networks)

Connect mobile devices to other mobile devices, or to fixed devices Infra Red links of mobile phones Bluetooth: Low power radio
1-2 Mbps over 10 metres

Most mobile cell phones use Bluetooth tech. e.g., European GSM standard and US, mostly, analog based AMP cellular radio network, atop by CDPD cellular digital packet data communication system, operating over wider areas at lower speed 9.6-19.2kbps.

Wireless Portable Devices

WAP (Wireless Application Protocol): Tiny screens of mobiles and wearables require a new WAP protocol
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Internetworks
An internetwork is a communication subsystem in which several networks are linked together to provide common data communication facilities that conceal the technologies and protocols of the individual component networks and the methods used for their interconnection. Needed for building open, extendible system for DSs, supporting network heterogeneity, multiprotocol system involving LANs, MANs, WLANs Connected by routers and gateways with layers of software for data and protocol conversions.
Routers
Dedicated switching computers

Gateways
General-purpose computers
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Network comparison

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Network principles
Mode of transmission Switching schemes Protocol suites Routing Congestion control

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Mode of transmission
Packets
first developed in the 1960s messages divided into packets packets queued in buffers before sent onto link transmitted when lines are available using asynchronous transmission protocol The simplest form of packet is a sequence of binary data (an array of bits or bytes) of restricted length QoS not guaranteed

Data streaming
links guarantee QoS (rate of delivery) for multimedia traffic higher bandwith

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Data streaming
Multimedia data cant be packetized due to unpredicted delays. Audio and video (AV) data are streamed at higher frequency and bandwidth at continuous flow rate Delivery of multimedia data to its destination is timecritical / low latency requiring end-to-end predefined route. Video transmission for real-time requires bw of 1.5Mbps compressed The play time of a multimedia element is the time at which it must be displayed (for a video element) or converted to audio.

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Switching schemes
Four kinds of switching methods typically used: Broadcast a transmission technique that involves no switching logic, all nodes see signals on circuits/cells (e.g., Ethernet, wireless networks) Circuit Switching Interconnected segments of circuits via switches/exchange boxes, e.g., POTS (Plain Old Telephone System) Packet Switching Developed as computing tech advanced with processors and storage spaces using store-and-forward algorithms and computers as switches. Packets are not sent instantaneously, routed on different links, reordered, may be lost, high latency (few msec msecs). Extension to switch audio/video data brought integration of digitized data for computer comm., telephone services, TV, and radio broadcasting, teleconferencing Frame Relay Packet switching (PS) is not instantaneous, just an illusion!), but frame relay , which integrates CS and PS techniques, streams smaller packets (53 byte-cells called frames) as bits at processing nodes. E.g., ATM

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Protocols
Protocola well known set of rules and formats to be used for communication between processes in order to perform a given task. Protocols implemented as pairs of software modules in send/receive nodes,
Specify the sequence of messages for transmission Specify the format of the data in the messages
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Protocol Layers
Protocols Layers layered architecture, following the OSI suite
packets are communicated as peer-to-peer transmission but effected vertically across layers by encapsulation method over a physical medium

Below Fig illustrates the structure and the flow of data when a message is transmitted using a layered protocol. Each layer of network software communicates by local procedure calls with the layers above and below it.

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Protocols (OSI view)

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Protocol suites
A complete set of protocol layers is referred to as a protocol suite or a protocol stack. The 7-layered architecture of the ISO-OSI
Each layer provides service to the layer above it and extends the service provided by the layer below it A complete set of protocol layers constitute a suite or stack Layering simplifies and generalizes the software interface definitions, but costly overhead due to encapsulations and protocol conversions.

The transmission of an application-level message via a protocol stack with N layers involves N transfers of control to the relevant layer of software in the protocol suite and taking N copies of the data as a part of the encapsulation mechanism. Figure below shows a protocol stack that conforms to the seven-layer Reference Model for open system interconnection (OSI) adopted by the International Standards Organization (ISO).

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Message encapsulation

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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model

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OSI protocol summary

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Internetwork layers
Internet does not follow the OSI model in two respects:
The application, presentation and session layers are not clearly distinguished. Instead, the application and presentation layers are implemented either as a single middleware layer or separately within each application. The session layer is integrated with the transport layer.

Internetwork protocol suites include:

Application layer Transport layer Internetwork layer a virtual network layer that is responsible for transmitting internetwork packets to a destination computer. An internetwork packet is the unit of data transmitted over an internetwork.

Internetwork protocols are overlyed on underlying networks. The network interface layer accepts internertwork packets and converts them into packets suitable for transmission by the network layers of each underlying network.

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Internetwork layers

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Packet assembly
Decomposing messages (packetizing) into packets, transmitting, and reassembling using sequence #s at delivery-switch to receiving host in the transport layer. The network-layer protocol packets consist of a header
Header and a data field: variable length, but with a limit called maximum transfer unit (MTU)

Packetizing applied to messages that exceed MTU of the switch. E.g., Ethernet MTU is 1518 bytes and Internet MTU is 8kbyes (min) to 64kbytes (max).

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Ports
Software-defined transmission/delivery points for network-independent transport service on a host computer. Processes are typically attached to ports for pair-wise communication

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Addressing
Transport layer addressing scheme, composed of network address (of host), I.e., the IP address, and the port number. The combined address is typically called a socket or transport address of the Transport Layer. Each host may have several port numbers for different kinds of protocols (e.g., for HTTP, FTP) or services. Hosts send port numbers to clients to establish, e.g., TCP, connection. Finding port number on server hosts in DS for arbitrary services requires RMI/RPC type of schemes

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Packet delivery
Two types: Datagramone-at-a-time, hop-by-hop transmission of packets with no storing of copies at switches, no setup of paths, unreliable and failures are handled by hosts, each packet contains full network address of source-to-destination, e.g., Internet IP datagram in network layer and some wireless networks Virtual circuitsset up of end-to-end path/address held in switch tables, no network address in packets except VC number (the addresses are not needed, because packets are routed at intermediate nodes by reference to the VC number), switching at intermediate nodes, more reliable, latency depends on time to use the links/path segments, unlike POTS voice-links VC links can be shared and used/entered in multiple tables, e.g., ATM [Note: At transport layer, connection-oriented TCP is like virtual circuits, and connection-less UDP is like datagram]

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Routing
Necessary in non-broadcast networks (cf Internet) Distance-vector algorithm: each node
stores table of state & cost info of links, cost infinity for faulty links determines route taken by packet (the next hop) periodically updates the table and sends to neighbours may converge slowly [Bellman-Ford]

RIP-1 for Internet similar except

use default routes, plus multicast and authentication better convergence

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Routing example

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Routing tables

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RIP routing algorithm

Update: Each 30 seconds or when local table changes, send update on each non-faulty outgoing link. Propagation: When router X finds that router Y has a shorter and faster path to router Z, then it will update its local table to indicate this fact. Any faster path is quickly propagated to neighbouring rotes through the Update process.

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Congestion control
When load on network high (80% capacity)
packet queues long, links blocked

Solutions
packet dropping
reliable of delivery at higher levels

reduce rate of transmission

nodes send choke packets (Ethernet) transmission control (TCP)

transmit congestion information to each node

QoS guarantees (ATM)

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Protocol examples
Mobile IP
connectivity for mobile devices, even in transit device retains single IP address re-routing by Home (HA) and Foreign Agents (FA) transparent

TCP and UDP

main transport level protocols used by IP

Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11)

radio or infra-red communications CSMA/CA based

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Transport level protocols

UDP (basic, used for some IP functions)
uses IP address + port number no guarantee of delivery, optional checksum messages up to 64KB

TCP (more sophisticated, most IP functions)

data stream abstraction, reliable delivery of all data messages divided into segments, sequence numbers sliding window, acknowledgement + retransmission buffering (with timeout for interactive applications) checksum (if no match segment dropped)

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MobileIP
At home normal, when elsewhere mobile host:
notifies HA before leaving informs FA, who allocates temporary care-of IP address & tells HA

Packets for mobile host:

first packet routed to HA, encapsulated in MobileIP packet and sent to FA (tunnelling) FA unpacks Mobile IP packet and sends to mobile host sender notified of the care-of address for future communications which can be direct via FA

Problems
efficiency low, need to notify HA

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MobileIP routing

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Wireless LAN
802.11 standards Radio broadcast (fading strength, obstruction) Collision avoidance by
slot reservation mechanism by Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) stations in range pick up RTS/CTS and avoid transmission at the reserved times collisions less likely than Ethernet since RTS/CTS short random back off period

Problems
security (eavesdropping), use shared-key authentication
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Wireless LAN configuration

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Summary
Types of networks
LAN, WANs, MANs,

Networking principles
transfer mode, switching schemes protocol suites, routing, congestion control

Sample protocols
Mobile-IP, TCP/UDP, Wireless LAN

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