Review of Vector Analysis

Review of Vector Analysis

Review of Vector Analysis Vector analysis is a mathematical tool with which electromagnetic (EM) concepts are most conveniently expressed and best comprehended. A quantity is called a scalar if it has only magnitude (e.g., mass, temperature, electric potential, population). A quantity is called a vector if it has both magnitude and direction (e.g., velocity, force, electric field intensity). The magnitude of a vector A is a scalar written as A or A

A
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A unit vector eA along is defined as a vector whose magnitude is unity (that is,1) and its direction is along

eA ! Thus

A A ! A A

! 1)

A ! A eA

which completely specifies A in terms of A and its direction e A

Review of Vector Analysis

A vector A in Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates may be represented as

(Ax, Ay, Az)

or

Axex  Ay ey  Az ez

where AX, Ay, and AZ are called the components of A in the x, y, and z directions, respectively; e x , e y , and e z are unit vectors in the x, y and z directions, respectively.

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Suppose a certain vector V is given by

V ! 2 ex  3 ey  4 ez
The magnitude or absolute value of the vector V is

V ! 22  32  42 ! 5.385

(from the Pythagorean theorem)

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The Radius Vector

A point P in Cartesian coordinates may be represented by specifying (x, y, z). The radius vector (or position vector) of point P is defined as the directed distance from the origin O to P; that is,

r ! x e x  y e y  z ez
The unit vector in the direction of r is

er !

x ex  y ey  z ez x 2  y 2  z2

r ! r

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Vector Algebra
Two vectors A and B can be added together to give another vector C ; that is ,

C !AB

Vectors are added by adding their individual components. Thus, if A x e x  A y e y  A z ez and B ! B x ex  B y ey  Bz ez

C ! (A x  B x )ex  (A y  By )ey  (A z  Bz )ez

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Parallelogram rule Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as

Head to tail rule

D ! A  B ! A  ( B ) D ! (A x  B x )ex  (A y  B y )ey  (A z  Bz )ez

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The three basic laws of algebra obeyed by any given vector A, B, and C, are summarized as follows: Law Commutative Associative istributive Addition AB !BA
A  (B  C ) ! (A  B )  C

Multiplication
A!A

(lA ) ! ( l)A

k(A  B ) ! kA  k B

where k and l are scalars

Review of Vector Analysis

When two vectors A and B are multiplied, the result is either a scalar or a vector depending on how they are multiplied. There are two types of vector multiplication: 1. Scalar (or dot) product: 2.Vector (or cross) product:

AB

AvB

The dot product of the two vectors A and B is defined geometrically as the product of the magnitude of B and the projection of A onto B (or vice versa):

A B ! AB cos U AB
where U AB is the smaller angle between A and B

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If

A ! (A X , A Y , A Z , )

and

B ! (BX , B Y , BZ )

then

A B ! A XB X  A YB Y  A ZB Z
which is obtained by multiplying A and B component by component
A B ! B A

A (B  C ) ! A B  A C

A A ! A ! A2

e e y ! ey e z ! e e x ! 0


eX e x ! e y e y ! eZ ez ! 1
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The cross product of two vectors A and B is defined as

B ! AB sin U AB en

where e is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A and B . The direction of en is determined using the righthand rule or the right-handed screw rule.
irection of A B and en using (a) right-hand rule, (b) right-handed screw rule

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If

A ! (A X , A Y , A Z , ) and B ! (B X , B Y , BZ )

then

ex A B ! Ax Bx

ey Ay By

ez Az Bz

! (A yBz  A zB y )ex  (A zB x  A xBz )ey  (A xB y  A yB x )ez

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Note that the cross product has the following basic properties: (i) It is not commutative: AvB { B vA

It is anticommutative:

AvB ! B vA

(ii) It is not associative:

A v (B v ) { (A v B ) v

(iii) It is distributive:

A v (B  C ) ! A v B  A v C

(iv)

A!0

(sin U ! 0)

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Also note that

ex ey ez

ey ! ez ez ! ex ex ! ey

which are obtained in cyclic permutation and illustrated below.

Cross product using cyclic permutation: (a) moving clockwise leads to positive results; (b) moving counterclockwise leads to negative results

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Scalar and Vector Fields

A field can be defined as a function that specifies a particular quantity everywhere in a region (e.g., temperature distribution in a building), or as a spatial distribution of a quantity, which may or may not be a function of time. Scalar quantity p scalar function of position p scalar field Vector quantity p vector function of position p vector field

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Line Integrals A line integral of a vector field can be calculated whenever a path has been specified through the field. The line integral of the field V along the path P is defined as

V dl ! V
P P1

P2

cos U dl

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Example. The vector V is given by V ! Vo ex where Vo is a constant. Find the line integral
I!

V dl
P

where the path P is the closed path below.

It is convenient to break the path P up into the four parts P1, P2, P3 , and P4.

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V ! Voex

For segment P1, dl ! dx ex

Thus
xo

P1

V dl !

x ! xo

x !0

(Vo ex ) (dx ex ) ! Vo (ex ex )dx ! Vo (xo  0) ! Vo xo

0

For segment P2,

y ! yo

dl ! dy e y
o x y

and
(since ex e y ! 0)

P2

V dl ! (V e ) (dy e ) !0
y !0

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For segment P3,

dl ! dxex (the differential lengthdl points to the left)

P3

V dl ! (V e ) (dx e ) ! - V x
o x x o x !0

x ! xo

P4

V dl ! 0
o o

I!

P1

   ! V x
P2 P3 P4

 0  Vo xo  0 ! 0 (conservat ive field)

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Example. Let the vector field V be given by V ! Vo ex . Find the line integral of V over the semicircular path shown below
Consider the contribution of the path segment located at the angle 5

dl ! dl cos J e x
 dl sin J e y

Since J ! U - 90 r cos J ! cos( U - 90 r ) ! sin U sin J ! sin( U - 90 r ) !  cos U dl ! dl sin U e x

 dl cos U e y ! ad U (sin U e x  cos U e y ) {
dl

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U !180r

I!

U !0

(V e ) (sin Ue
o x 180r 0 1

 cos Ue y )adU

! aVo [sin U (ex ex )  cos U (ex e y )]dU  

0 180r

! aVo

 180 ]   sin UdU ! aV (cos  r  cos 0)

o 0 1 1

! 2aVo

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Surface Integrals Surface integration amounts to adding up normal components of a vector field over a given surface S.
The flux of a vector field A through surface S

We break the surface S into small surface elements and assign to each element a vector ds ! ds en
ds is equal to the area of the surface element

en is the unit vector normal (perpendicular) to the surface element

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(If S is a closed surface, ds is by convention directed outward) Then we take the dot product of the vector field V at the position of the surface element with vector ds . The result is a differential scalar. The sum of these scalars over all the surface elements is the surface integral.

V ds ! V

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ds cos U

V cos U is the component of V in the direction of ds (normal to the surface). Therefore, the surface integral can be viewed as the flow (or flux) of the vector field through the surface S (the net outward flux in the case of a closed surface).

Review of Vector Analysis

Example. Let V be the radius vector

V ! x ex  y ey  z ez
The surface S is defined by
z!c d d x y d d

The normal to the surface is directed in the +z direction Find

V ds
S

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Surface S

V is not perpendicular to S, except at one point on the Z axis

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V ds ! V ds cos 5
S S

V !

x 2  y2  c2

ds ! dxdy

cosU !

c x 2  y 2  c2

cosU V ds                x !d y !d x!d c V ds ! x2  y 2  c2 dydx ! c [d  (d)]dx 2 2 2 x y c S x ! d y ! d x ! d

! 2dc[d - (-d)] ! 4d2c

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Introduction to

ifferential Operators

An operator acts on a vector field at a point to produce some function of the vector field. It is like a function of a function. If O is an operator acting on a function f(x) of the single variable X , the result is written O[f(x)]; and means that first f acts on X and then O acts on f. Example. f(x) = x2 and the operator O is (d/dx+2) O[f(x)]=d/dx(x2 ) + 2(x2 ) = 2x +2(x2 ) = 2x(1+x)

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An operator acting on a vector field O[V(x, y, z)] can produce either a scalar or a vector. Example. O(A ) ! A A (the length operator), V ! 3y ex  z ey Evaluate O(V ) at the point x=1, y=2, z=-2

O(V) ! V V ! 9y2  z2 ! 40 ! 6.32 n scalar  Thus, O is a scalar operator acting on a vector field.
Example. O(A) ! A A A  2A , x=1, y=2, z=-2

V ! 3y ex  z ey ,

O(V) ! (3y ex  z ey ) 9y2  z2  6y ex  2z ey ! (6 ex  2ey ) 40  12ex  4 ey ! 49.95 ex  16.65ey n vector

Thus, O is a vector operator acting on a vector field.
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Vector fields are often specified in terms of their rectangular components:

V(x, y, z) ! Vx (x, y, z)ex  Vy (x, y, x)ey  Vz (x, y, z)ez

where Vx , Vy , and Vz are three scalar features functions of position. Operators can then be specified in terms of Vx , Vy , and Vz . The divergence operator is defined as

V !

x x x Vx  Vy  Vz xx xy xz

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Example V ! x2 ex  y ey  (2  x)ez point x=1, y=-1, z=2.

. Evaluate V at the

Vx ! x2 x Vx ! 2x xx

Vy ! y Vz ! 2  x x x Vy ! 1 Vz ! 0 xy xz

V ! 2x  1 ! 3

Clearly the divergence operator is a scalar operator.

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1.

- gradient, acts on a scalar to produce a vector

2.

V - divergence, acts on a vector to produce a scalar

3. v V - curl, acts on a vector to produce a vector

2 4. V

-Laplacian, acts on a scalar to produce a scalar

Each of these will be defined in detail in the subsequent sections.

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Coordinate Systems In order to define the position of a point in space, an appropriate coordinate system is needed. A considerable amount of work and time may be saved by choosing a coordinate system that best fits a given problem. A hard problem in one coordinate system may turn out to be easy in another system. We will consider the Cartesian, the circular cylindrical, and the spherical coordinate systems. All three are orthogonal (the coordinates are mutually perpendicular).

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Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) The ranges of the coordinate variables are

g g g

x y z

g g g

A vector A in Cartesian coordinates can be written as

(A x , A y , A z )

or

A x ex  A y ey  A z ez

The intersection of three orthogonal infinite places (x=const, y= const, and z = const) defines point P.

Constant x, y and z surfaces

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dl ! dx ex  dy ey  dz ez

dR ! dxdydz

Differential elements in the right handed Cartesian coordinate system

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dS ! dydz ax dxdz ay dxdy az

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Cylindrical Coordinates (V, J, z) .

0eV 0eJ g z

g 2T g

- the radial distance from the z axis - the azimuthal angle, measured from the xaxis in the xy plane - the same as in the Cartesian system.

A vector

in cylindrical coordinates can be written as

or AV eV  A J eJ  Az ez A ! (AV  A J  A z )1 / 2
2 2 2

(AV , A JA z )

Cylindrical coordinates amount to a combination of rectangular coordinates and polar coordinates.

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Relationship between (x,y,z) and (V, J, z)

Positions in the x-y plane are determined by the values of V and J y V ! x2  y2 J ! tan1 z!z x
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Point P and unit vectors in the cylindrical coordinate system

eV v eJ ! ez eJ v ez ! eV ez v eV ! eJ

eV eV ! eJ eJ ! ez ez ! 1 eV eJ ! eJ ez ! eJ eV ! 0
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semi-infinite plane with its edge along the z - axis

Constant V, J and z surfaces

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Metric coefficient

dl ! dV ap  VdJaJ  dz az

dv ! VdVdJdz

Differential elements in cylindrical coordinates

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dS ! VdJdzaV dVdzaJ VdJdVaz

Cylindrical surface (

Planar surface ( J = const)

Planar surface ( z =const)

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=const)

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Spherical coordinates (r, U, J) .

0er 0e5 T 1 4 2 43
Colatitude ( polar angle)

0 e * 2T

- the distance from the origin to the point P - the angle between the z-axis and the radius vector of P - the same as the azimuthal angle in cylindrical coordinates

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er v eU ! eJ eU v eJ ! er eJ v er ! eU

er er ! eU eU ! eJ eJ ! 1
Point P and unit vectors in spherical coordinates

er eU ! eU eJ ! eJ er ! 0

A vector A in spherical coordinates may be written as (A r , A U A J ) or A r er  A U eU  A J eJ A ! (Ar  A U  A J )1 / 2

2 2 2

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r!

x y z

U!t n

1

x2  y2 z

J ! t n-1

y ! cos 1 x

x x2  y2

U ! t n1

V z ! cos 1 r z

x ! r sin U cos J y ! r sin U sin J z ! r cos U

Rel tionships between sp ce v ri bles (x, y, z), (r, U, J), nd (V, J, z)

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Const nt

r, U, nd J surf ces

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dl ! dr ar  rdUaU  r sin UdJ aJ

dv ! r 2 sin UdrdUdJ

Differential elements in the spherical coordinate system

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dS ! r 2 sin U dU dJ ar r sin U dr dJ aU rdr dJ aJ

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