Part - i

An objective approach to
Seismic Exploration Method :
How to understand the
subsurface ????
By:
Prakash Dubey
Research Scholar
G&M Division
NGRI, Hyderabad
INTRODUCTION:
Method Geophysical Parameter Geological Information
Seismic travel time from layer boundaries,
source to geophone; density, porosity
compute wave velocity
Seismology makes use of the travel times and velocities of seismic waves (also
earthquake waves) to study the nature of the interior of the Earth
Hydrocarbon exploration
Methods used: seismic
gravity
magnetic
electromagnetic (MT)
Electromagnetic, Gravity and Magnetic are preliminary (reconnaissance) tools for the
exploration of sedimentary basin
Seismic Method : Fine structure of the
sediments/structures.
ELEMENTARY ELASTIC THEORY:
1. Elastic/Elasticity
2. Plastic/Plasticity
Elastic Behavior of Solid: By Robert Hooke, an English physicist
Stress
Strain: Poissons Ratio
Hookes Law
Stress Strain Curve: Help us to
understand how a given material
deforms with increasing loads
Elastic Moduli:
Youngs Modulus
Bulk Modulus
Shear Modulus
SEISMIC WAVES:
Wave: a disturbance travels through a medium
Reflection of wave: from hard, soft and mixed boundaries OR impedance
discontinuity
Refraction of wave: how temperature gradients make wave change direction
Temperature Lapse: Shadow Zone Temperature Inversion
Waves from Sources:
Longitudinal and Transverse
Waves: Particle motion for
Longitudinal, Transverse
Types of Seismic Waves:
Body Wave
Surface Wave
BODY WAVE:
Compressional Wave (P-wave) Transverse Wave (S-wave)
Vibrations along the propagating Along the transverse to the propagating
direction direction
Longitudinal or Compressional wave Shear or Shake wave or Rotational
Irrotational Wave wave or Equivoluminal wave
As a series of dilatation and compression Up and down motion
Fastest wave, first to arrive at receiver Slow wave, later arrivals
Called as Primary or P-wave Called as Secondary or S-wave
Travel in solid, liquid and gas Cannot travel in gas or liquid
No Polarization Polarization:SV-wave and SH-wave
P-Wave:
S-wave:
SURFACE WAVES or L-waves:
Rayleigh Wave (L
R
) Love Wave (L
Q
)
1. Polarized in a vertical plane Are always dispersive
2. As a combination of P- and SV-vibrations As a multiple internal reflection of SH-wave
3. Travels in terms of retrograde ellipse
4. Particles below the surface are also affected
5. Amplitude decreases exponentially with depth
6. Penetration depth
Rayleigh Wave:
Direction of propagation
Love wave:
Table 2: Seismic Waves
Type (and
names)
Particle Motion Typical Velocity Other Characteristics
P,Compressional
, Primary,
Longitudinal
Alternating
compressions
(pushes) and dilations
(pulls) which are
directed in the same
direction as the wave is
propagating (along the
raypath); and therefore,
perpendicular to the
wavefront
V
P
~ 5 7 km/s in
typical Earths
crust;
>~ 8 km/s in
Earths mantle and
core; 1.5 km/s in
water; 0.3 km/s in
air
P motion travels fastest in materials,
so the P-wave is the first-arriving
energy on a seismogram. Generally
smaller and higher frequency than
the S and Surface-waves. P waves in
a liquid or gas are pressure waves,
including sound waves.
S, Shear,
Secondary,
Transverse
Alternating transverse
motions (perpendicular
to the direction of
propagation, and the
raypath); commonly
polarized such that
particle motion is in
vertical or horizontal
planes
V
S
~ 3 4 km/s in
typical Earths
crust;
>~ 4.5 km/s in
Earths
mantle; ~ 2.5-3.0
km/s in (solid)
inner core
S-waves do not travel through fluids,
so do not exist in Earths outer core
(inferred to be primarily liquid iron)
or in air or water or molten rock
(magma). S waves travel slower
than P waves in a solid and,
therefore, arrive after the P wave.
Characteristics of Seismic Waves
L, Love,
Surface waves,
Long waves
Transverse horizontal
motion, perpendicular to
the direction of
propagation and
generally parallel to the
Earths surface
V
L
~ 2.0 - 4.5 km/s
in the Earth
depending on
frequency of the
propagating wave
Love waves exist because of the
Earths surface. They are largest at
the surface and decrease in
amplitude with depth. Love waves
are dispersive, that is, the wave
velocity is dependent on frequency,
with low frequencies normally
propagating at higher
velocity. Depth of penetration of the
Love waves is also dependent on
frequency, with lower frequencies
penetrating to greater depth.
R, Rayleigh,
Surface waves,
Long waves,
Ground roll
Motion is both in the
direction of propagation
and perpendicular (in a
vertical plane),
and phased so that the
motion is generally
elliptical either
prograde or retrograde
V
R
~ 2.0 - 4.5 km/s
in the Earth
depending on
frequency of the
propagating wave
Rayleigh waves are also dispersive
and the amplitudes generally
decrease with depth in the
Earth. Appearance and particle
motion are similar to water waves.
Characteristics of Seismic Waves..
Energy in a seismic disturbance: The mean intensity of wave is
proportional to the square of its amplitude.
Attenuation of Seismic waves:
1. Due to geometry of propagation: most imp attenuation
2. Anelastic properties of material: Quality factor (Q)
Classification of seismic methods:
based on energy source of the seismic waves
1. Earthquake seismology
Natural shock waves from earthquakes are studied to make
deductions about the physical properties and structure of
the earths interior.
2. Controlled-source seismology
(Explosion seismology or seismic prospecting)
Seismic waves are generated by artificial explosions at
selected sites to obtain information about regional or local
structure.
Seismic Refraction: the signal returns to the
surface by refraction at subsurface interfaces,
and is recorded at distances much greater than
depth of investigation
Seismic Reflection: the seismic signal is
reflected back to the surface at layer interfaces,
and is recorded at distances less than depth of
investigation
Refraction Vs. Reflection Refraction Vs. Reflection
SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION:
How the wave behaves at the boundary between two media?
1. Huygens's Principle: describes the behavior of wavefronts
2. Fermats Principle: describes the geometry of ray paths at interface
Huygens's Principle:
By Dutch Mathematician and physicist, Christian Huygens, for light rays but can be
equally applied to any kind of wave phenomenon
All the points on a wavefront can be regarded as point source for the production of
new spherical waves; the new wavefront is the tangential surface of the secondary
wavelets.
This principle can be used to derive the laws of reflection and refraction of seismic
waves at an interface.
To describe the process of diffraction by which a wave is deflected at a corner or at
the edge of an object in its path.
The Law of Reflection using Huygens's Principle:
Angle of incidence (i)
Angle of reflection (i)
Law of Reflection: Angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence i.e i=i
The Law of Refraction using Huygens's Principle:
Angle of incidence (i)
Angle of refraction (r)
Law of Refraction: It is also known as Snells law = =
Diffraction:
When a plane or spherical seismic
wave encounters a pointed
obstacles or discontinuous surface ,
it experiences a diffraction.
Allows the wave to bend around
obstacles.
FERMATS PRINCIPLE:
o By the French mathematician Pierre De Fermat
o Of the many possible paths between two points A & B, the seismic ray follow the
path that gives the shortest travel time between the points.
o In the case of velocity varies continuously with position, the determination of the ray
path is intricate.
o In case of layered medium, it provides with independent method for determining
the law of reflection and refraction.
o
The Law of reflection using Fermat's Principle:
The Law of Refraction using Fermats Principle:
=
Corollary:
1) If

the iefiacteu iay will move

away fiom the normal i.e. r > i
2) If

the iefiacteu iay will bent

towaius the noimal ie i i
SUBCRITICAL AND SUPERCRITICAL REFLECTION, AND CRITICAL REFRACTION:
Normally incident ray
Subcritical Reflection
Critical Ray
Critical Refraction
Critical angle of incidence
Critical Reflection
Critical Distance
Subcritical Reflection
Supercritical Reflection or
Wide angle reflection
Three basic ray paths
1) Direct Wave
2) Reflected Wave
3) Head Wave or Refracted Wave
thank
you