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DME system is composed of a UHF transmitter/receiver (interrogator) in the aircraft and a UHF receiver/transmitter (transponder) on the transponder) ground.
A radio pulse takes around 12.36 microseconds to travel one nautical mile to and from, this is also referred to as a radar-mile. radar-
The time difference between interrogation and reply minus the 50 microsecond ground transponder delay is measured by the interrogator's timing circuitry and translated into a distance measurement in nautical miles which is then displayed in the cockpit.
DME interrogator uses frequencies from 1025 to 1150 MHz DME transponders transmit on a channel in the 962 to 1150 MHz range and receive on a corresponding channel between 962 to 1213 MHz
The band is divided into 126 channels for interrogation and 126 channels for transponder replies The interrogation and reply frequencies always differ by 63 MHz DME facilities identify themselves with a 1350 Hz morse code three letter identity
the physical distance from the aircraft to the DME transponder depends trigonometrically upon both the altitude above the transponder and the ground distance from it
Bearing - provides magnetic bearing to the station you are tuned to Distance - slant range to the station up to 390 nautical miles
To/From - flying away or towards your station. Beacon Identifier Tone (BIT) - audio information consists of a morse code trail for identification of the station you are tuned to Reliability - warning flag information lets you know if the system is reliable
TACAN station with no aircraft initially modulates squitter onto the carrier, which is basically random noise generated so that the waveform is the proper length. So basically, you end up with a signal which is simply noise:
When an aircraft flies into range which is transmitting distance interrogations, the station will pick these interrogations up and generate an appropriate response by pulse modulating DME data into the waveform.
every 30 seconds, the station modulates station identification in the form of BIT data onto the carrier:
RF energy from the TACAN transmitter is fed to the antenna Parasitic elements positioned around it are electronically rotated at 15 revolutions per minute
The distance of the parasitic element are chosen to obtain a radiation pattern that looks like this:
as the reflector moves, the outward lobe of the cardioidcardioid-like radiation pattern moves around this creates a physically amplitude modulated signal, which each aircraft sees differently. Because of the rotating radiation pattern, the waveform is variable for aircraft at different radials, but all aircraft receive the reference signal at the same time
the
aircraft determines its bearing from the station by looking at the waveform of the signal and where the main reference burst is pulse encoded.
To provide more accurate bearing information, TACAN uses the same principle again to calculate fine bearing. Yet another rotating element with 9 reflectors produces even more amplitude variations. Again, there is a reference point for the variable amplitude variations. This comes in the form of 9 auxillary reference bursts:
DME responses:
composite signal (listed below in order of priority): 1. MRB - Main Reference Burst 2. ARB - Auxillary Reference Bursts 3. BIT - 1350Hz Beacon Identification Tone 4. DME - Distance Measurement Equipment 5. 2700Hz Squitter/Filler Squitter/Filler
TCAS involves communication between all aircraft equipped with an appropriate transponder Each TCAS-equipped TCASaircraft "interrogates" all other aircraft in a determined range about their, and all other craft reply to other it determines if a potential collision threat exists
automatically negotiating a mutual avoidance maneuver between the conflicting aircraft avoidance maneuvers are communicated to the flight crew by a cockpit display and by synthesized voice instructions
Versions of TCAS
A. Passive
Collision Avoidance systems which rely on transponder replies triggered by ground and airborne systems generally have a range of less than 7 nautical miles
B. TCAS I
monitor the traffic situation around a plane (to a range of about 40 miles) and offer information on the approximate bearing and altitude of other aircraft It can also generate collision warnings in the form of a "Traffic Advisory "Traffic does not offer any suggested remedy
Versions of TCAS
C. TCAS II
offers all the benefits of TCAS I offer the pilot direct, vocalized instructions to avoid danger, known as a "Resolution Advisory TCAS II systems coordinate their resolution advisories before issuing commands to the pilots vertical separation advisories
D. TCAS III
"next generation" of collision avoidance technology had the capability to offer traffic advisories and resolve traffic conflicts using horizontal as well as vertical manouevring directives currently suspended and there are no plans for its implementation
TCAS Limitations
limited to supporting only vertical separation advisories ATC isn't automatically informed about resolution advisories TCAS lacks automated facilities, increases pilot workload Lack of terrain/ground awareness information TCAS is not fitted to many smaller aircraft mainly due to the high costs
displays aircraft heading and bearing to selected radio navigation aids. Most RMI incorporate two direction needles. Typically, the thin, single-barred singleneedle is connected to an ADF/TACAN and the other thicker and/or double-barred is connected to doublea VOR. Heading indicator direction of the aircraft in relation to magnetic north Bearing indicator the actual bearing to the station
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) / Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS)
Invention of Don Bateman alert pilots if their aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the ground. GroundGround-Collision Warning System (GCWS) the system is purely reactive and can not look ahead at terrain can not always give pilots sufficient time to predict and plan avoidance maneuvers
A computer then keeps track of these readings, calculates trends, and will warn the captain with visual and audio messages if the aircraft is in certain defined flying configurations ("modes"). ("modes").
first prototype FDR was produced in 1957 by Dr David Warren typically double wrapped, in strong corrosioncorrosionresistant stainless steel or titanium, with highhightemperature insulation inside
1. Aluminum housing - There is a thin layer of aluminum around the stack of memory cards. 2. High-temperature insulation - This dry-silica material is 1 Highdryinch (2.54 cm) thick and provides high-temperature highthermal protection. This is what keeps the memory boards safe during post-accident fires. post3. Stainless-steel shell - The high-temperature insulation Stainlesshighmaterial is contained within a stainless-steel cast shell stainlessthat is about 0.25 inches (0.64 cm) thick. Titanium can be used to create this outer armor as well.
There are several tests that make up the crash-survival sequence: crash-
1.
Crash impact
- Researchers shoot the CSMU down an air cannon to create an impact of 3,400 Gs (1 G is the force of Earth's gravity, which determines how much something weighs). At 3,400 Gs, the CSMU hits an aluminum, honeycomb target at a force equal to 3,400 times its weight. This impact force is equal to or in excess of what a recorder might experience in an actual crash.
2.
Pin drop
- To test the unit's penetration resistance, researchers drop a 500-pound (227-kg) 500(227weight with a 0.25-inch steel pin protruding from the bottom onto the CSMU from a height of 10 0.25feet (3 m). This pin, with 500-pounds behind it, impacts the CSMU cylinder's most vulnerable 500axis.
3. 4.
Static crush
- For five minutes, researchers apply 5,000 pounds per square-inch (psi) of crush squareforce to each of the unit's six major axis points. burners. The unit sits inside the fire at 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,100 C) for one hour. The FAA requires that all solid-state recorders be able to survive at least one hour at this temperature. solid-
Fire test - Researchers place the unit into a propane-source fireball, cooking it using three propaneDeepDeep-sea submersion - The CSMU is placed into a pressurized tank of salt water for 24
hours.
5. 6.
SaltSalt-water submersion - The CSMU must survive in a salt water tank for 30 days. 7. Fluid immersion - Various CSMU components are placed into a variety of aviation fluids,
including jet fuel, lubricants and fire-extinguisher chemicals. fire-
FDR Record Parameters Currently, there are 88 parameters required as a minimum a few of the parameters recorded by most FDRs: - Time - Pressure altitude - Airspeed - Vertical acceleration - Magnetic heading -Control-column position - Rudder-pedal position - Control-wheel position - Horizontal stabilizer - Fuel flow - Control and actuator positions, - Engine information
FDR Location
Black boxes are usually sold directly to and installed by the airplane manufacturers. Black boxes are installed in the tail of the plane. The entire front of the aircraft acts as a "crush zone" to reduce the shock that reaches the recorder. The precise location of the recorders depends on the individual plane. Sometimes they are located in the ceiling of the galley, in the aft cargo hold or in the tail cone that covers the rear of the aircraft.
Retrieving Data
With the data retrieved from the FDR, the Safety Board can generate a computer animated video reconstruction of the flight. The investigator can then visualize the airplane's attitude, instrument readings, power settings and other characteristics of the flight. This animation enables the investigating team to visualize the last moments of the flight before the accident. Black boxes are also equipped with an Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB). If a plane crashes into the water, this beacon sends out an ultrasonic pulse at 37.5 kilohertz (kHz) that cannot be heard by human ears but is readily detectable by sonar and acoustical locating equipment. There is a submergence sensor on the side of the beacon that looks like a bull's-eye. When water touches this bull'ssensor, it activates the beacon. computer animated video reconstruction of the flight.
There may be up to four microphones in the plane's cockpit, each connected to the cockpit voice recorder (CVR) Any sounds in the cockpit are picked up by these microphones and sent to the CVR, where the recordings are digitized and stored. There is also another device in the cockpit, called the associated control unit that provides pre-amplification for audio going to the preCVR. The positions of the four microphones are: 1. Pilot's headset 2. Co-pilot's headset Co3. Headset of a third crew member (if there is a third crew member) 4. Near the center of the cockpit, where it can pick up audio alerts and other sounds
Most magnetic-tape CVRs store the last 30 minutes of magneticsound. They use a continuous loop of tape that completes a cycle every 30 minutes. As new material is recorded, the oldest material is replaced. CVRs that used solidsolid-state storage can record two hours of audio. Similar to the magnetic-tape recorders, solid-state magneticsolidrecorders also record over old material
Retrieving Data
A CVR committee usually consisting of members from the NTSB, FAA, operator of the aircraft, manufacturer of the airplane, manufacturer of the engines, and the pilots union, is formed to listen to the recording. This committee creates a written transcript of the CVR audio to be used during the investigation. The CVR records the flight crew's voices, as well as other sounds inside the cockpit. From the sounds, parameters such as engine rpm, system failures, speed, and the time at which certain events occur can often be determined. Communications with Air Traffic Control, automated radio weather briefings, and conversation between the pilots and ground or cabin crew are also recorded