THE WORLD BANK

SITE, CITY AND REGION: Integrating Land Use and Infrastructure

Overview:
The relationship between land use and infrastructure
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Land use and urban design establish the 1)

location, 2) concentration, 3) nature and, 4) function of the demand that infrastructure aims to satisfy Good land use and urban design can reduce the capital and recurring costs of infrastructure, while Well planned infrastructure systems (transport, energy, water, etc.) can enable and support desirable, equitable and resilient land use and urban form In short: Land use and infrastructure are interdependent and mutually reinforcing

Mid-town Manhattan
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London
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Paris
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What do these cities have in common?

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Not just high densities..

o o o o

Continuous, dense arterial and secondary street grids Pedestrian-friendly, crossable streets in all directions Buildings 100% walk accessible to at least one Metro station Mixed use development Compactness results in lower unit costs of infrastructure (transportation, water, sewers, electricity, public housing) Public transport and other green transport require certain threshold densities (average of about 40p/ha) and urban form (e.g., concentration of jobs in a few areas) to be viable

Why is this efficient?

o

Resource Efficiency Spatial Form, Land Use and Transport

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Correlation between Urban

Density and Transport Related Energy Consumption At the Low Densities and Fragmented Form of most North American Cities, the only Option is the Automobile Losses are Economic, Social, and Ecological

Transport Space Efficiency:

Auto vs Bicycle vs Bus
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Source: Muenster, Germany as cited in GTZ Sustainable Transport Sourcebook (2004), Land Use and Urban Transport

Too many autos and inefficient urban form

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In the year 2000, in the USA,

congestion in 75 metropolitan areas caused fuel and time losses valued at US$ 67.5 billion In 2011 it is reported that congestion costs Jakarta $1.5 Billion each year

Traffic Congestion!

Urban Land Use, Transport, and Energy Consumption

Source: UITP (2001) Cities Database as cited in GTZ Sustainable Transport Sourcebook (2004), Land Use and Urban Transport

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Efficient Cities:
Need to Maintain a High Share of Transit
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Availability of efficient and affordable options for

passenger and goods transport Demand management, e.g., regulations and policies that encourage transport use:
o o o

Congestion pricing for highways and for vehicles entering the CBD. Auto access restrictions/permits Parking off street and at market price in and around the CBD

Singapore is exemplifies the seamless integration of

these various elements.

The Converse of Efficient Cities is:

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Urban sprawl, widely scattered single-purpose developments, lack of

connectivity These may be due to:

o o o

o o

No planning Well intentioned but misguided planning Poor investment decisions, which once made, are difficult to change (land use and infrastructure are DURABLE) Lack of enforcement of land use policies, zoning, etc. Vested interests

Resulting in inefficient urban/regional form, as evidenced in the case

of:

Cairo 8 km from city center (1,600 people/ha)lack of planning, inadequate infrastructure

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Analysis of Cairo by Alain Bertaud

Cairo New town (40 km from city center), pedestrian unfriendly, with few people, a lot of infrastructure!
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Analysis of Cairo by Alain Bertaud

Cairo: Land supply and infrastructure in the wrong place

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Analysis of Cairo by Alain Bertaud

Hanoi Master Plan Proposal for New Towns and Satellite Cities
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The problem: The urban

population of Hanoi projected to increase from 2.8 million in 2010 to 6.5 million by 2030 The proposed solution: Build 5 self-sufficient satellite towns to absorb 1.6 million people; on cheaper land on average 30km away from the core city; requiring connective transit lines with an estimated cost of US$20 billion. Compare Hanoi and Seoul:

Analysis of Cairo by Alain Bertaud

New Towns and Satellite Cities Risky Business

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New towns often fail because:

o o

o o o

They require large, up front public expenditures for infrastructure The infrastructure is costly and unsustainable because of long distances covered Land speculators and a strong construction lobby may fuel the process Population growth projections may not materialize The towns are disconnected from the economic, cultural and historic fabric of the city and people do not want to live there.

There are some successes mostly when the new towns are located

closer to the core city, and developed incrementally in response to demand.

Managing Urban Expansion

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Well thought out spatial plans in new areas may be difficult to

implement because:
o o o o

Much of the land is already owned and/or intensively used Land in closer proximity to the city may be difficult/costly to acquire A citys influence over the peripheral land may be limited There are many stakeholders, each with different interests:

Land Owners Public Sector Agencies Infrastructure and Service Providers Private Sector Developers (Formal and Informal) Financial Institutions Communities and Community Organizations

So, what to do?

Land Acquisition Method

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In this method, public planning authorities and development agencies acquire large

land areas
o o o o

Government uses its powers of eminent domain to force owners/occupants off of their land Compensation is typically paid based on prevailing land prices, e.g., for agricultural land Infrastructure is built using public or private funds Serviced plots are sold for urban uses at market prices.

Whats wrong with this? o The original owners do not share in the gains, and often lose their livelihood o Powerful interests and/or corruption may prevail o The process is slow

Land Pooling and Readjustment Method

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Landowners are asked to pool their land and to give up a percentage

(typically 30%-40%) for infrastructure, public facilities, etc. o The remaining land is reconstituted into final plots and allocated to the original owners in proportion to their original holdings o A betterment charge is levied on the land-owners to pay for the infrastructure provided. Advantages: o original owners retain ownership and are free to sell their remaining land in the open market o in theory, the higher value of the remaining 60%-70% compensates for the reduced amount of land owned Disadvantages: o The procedure is time consuming and cumbersome o Betterment charges often do not fully cover the cost of infrastructure

Shantigram Township: Before and After Land Pooling and Readjustment in Gujarat
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Land Pooling and Readjustment

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This method has been successfully used in many countries

o

In Japan, by 2006, 11,808 projects involving a total land area of 394,484 hectares (ha) had been undertaken (Takashi 1995). This accounts for about 33% of the urbanized land area of Japan (Sorensen, 2000). In South Korea, the Seoul City Government has, since the 1950s, carried out 41 large scale land pooling and readjustment projects, producing:
132.6 ha of urban land in the 1950s, 5,912.3 ha in the 1960s, 3,990.8 ha in the 1970s, and 1,442.1 ha in the 1980s

Taiwan, Malaysia, and Bali have also used these schemes.

Land Pooling and Readjustment

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By and large such schemes have

o o o

prevented sprawled, patch-work urbanization on the urban fringe unlocked land and finance for infrastructure and public services created a basis for urban connectivity and the sensible extension of transport networks, and ensured that the original rural landholders are able to participate in the gains of urbanization as they retain their claim to the land through the scheme.

But clearly the difficulties of retrofitting urban land shows

how important it is to get it right the first time

Comparison of Urban Form for Similar Population Size: Atlanta and Barcelona
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Land use and urban form

locks in physical and economic parameters for transport, water, waste, energy, telecommunication Infrastructure network costs increase with distance and typography
The case of water:
o

70% of the capital cost of a water system is the linear piping Sometimes 30% of municipal energy bill is for pumping water and waste water
Map by Alain Bertaud

The Case of Curitiba

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Curitiba started integrating land use and infrastructure at a

population of 300,000 it is now 1.7 million. Its approach was incremental and affordable. The development of the Curitiba BRT & transport network in annual increments is shown below:

Curitibas Benefits from Land Use Planning

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Property market was stimulated & tax

revenues increased Slum dwellers were resettled and saved from risk Parks and lakes manage flooding at 1/5th the cost of constructed canals Parks are linked into the transportation system (bicycle and pedestrian corridors) Green space promotes energy efficiency (the cooling impact of greenery reduces power use in summer) Public health has benefitted and Tourism has increased.

Final Thoughts
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Spatial Development takes place in the larger socio-

economic, institutional, legal and political context It must be approached in an integrated and systematic manner And must be rooted in the ground level realities of each urban environment. THANK YOU!