Chapter 4

Chemical composition of the cell

The chemical compostion of the cell elements in the cell

Element a substance composed of only 1 kind of atom Cannot be broken down into simpler substances

 25 essential elements (bioelements) a) 96% - C,O, H, N b) 4% - Ca, K, P, S, Na, Cl, Mg, Fe

The main 4 elements in human body ~ O2(65%), C (18.5%), H2 (9.5%), N (3.3%) Trace elements are needed in very small amounts (Cu, I, Fe <0.01% of the body mass)

Functions of elements in animal & plant cells

Element
H, C, O, N S Na

Functions Animal cells Plant cells

 Synthesis of organic compounds (proteins, lipids, nucleic acids)  Component of some proteins.  Not required  Regulates osmotic pressure in cells  Transmit nerve impulses

Mg

 Protein synthesis  Cofactor for enzymes

 Synthesis of chlorophyll  Activates enzymes

Ca

 Formation of strong bones & teeth  Contraction of muscle cells  Blood clotting

 Synthesis of cell walls (cellulose)  Maintain semipermeability of plasma membrane

Fe(iron)  Synthesis of haemoglobin  Synthesis of chlorophyll

 Synthesis of respiratory enzymes  As an electron carrier during photosynthesis & respiration

 Strong bones & teeth  Contraction of muscle cells  Synthesis of ATP & energy carrier  Essential component of nucleic acids (DNA & RNA)

 Formation of flowers & seeds  Promotes cell division  Synthesis of ATP & nucleic acids

 Muscle contractions & transmission of nerve impulses.  Synthesis of hydrochloric acid by the gastric glands (stomach) which destroy pathogens & maintain pH of the stomach

 Synthesis of carbohydrates  Activates certain enzymes  Photolysis of water during light reaction in photosynthesis.

Cl

Chemical compounds in the cell

Compound substances composed of 2 or more elements

2 major groups: a) Organic compounds b) Inorganic compounds

Organic compounds: Contains element C C is important in forming strong covalent bonds with other elements Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids & nucleic acids (4 macromolecules) Most are synthesized by the cell itself

Inorganic compounds: Lack of carbon Water, acids, bases & mineral salts Not synthesized by the cell (obtained fr the external environment)

Chemical compounds
Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic acids water

Elements present
C, H, O C, H, O, N, S, P C, H, O C, H, O, P, N H,O

The Importance of organic compounds

a) Protein
   Made up of C, H, O, N (S, P) 15% of protoplasma is made up of proteins Importance: - build new cells for growth, renew damage tissues - required in synthesis of enzymes, antibodies n hormones -form structural components (keratin, collagen, myosin)

b) carbohydrate
   Made up of C, H, O Primary source of energy Importance: - starch: main energy store for plants - glycogen: main energy store in human n animal -cellulose: form cell wall in plant cell

c) lipid
   Made up of C, H, O E.g. : fats,oil, wax, phospholipid, steroids Importance: - source of energy - adipose tissue: located underneath the skin - insulates the bodies of animal against low temperature - act as solvent for fat-soluble vitamin (ADEK) - phospholipids: in plasma membrane - wax: prevent water loss in plants

d)

Nucleic acids Macromolecules Contains C, H, O, N and P Store & transmit genetic information in the form of code Basic units are nucleotides. Each nucleotides consists of 3 parts: - A nitrogenous base - A pentose sugar (5C sugar deoxyribose or ribose) - A phosphate group

 2 types of nuclei acids: - deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - ribonucleic acid (RNA)

DNA
A double-stranded nucleic acid (2 strands of polynucleotides twisted around each other to form double helix) Sugar-phosphate strands are on the outside, the nitrogenous bases are on the inside held together by H bonds. Found in nucleus, mitochondrion & chloroplast. Is the genetic material inherit fr parents to offspring. Is a structure that store genetic information & pass the genetic code to new cells

DNA Structure
y DNA consists of two molecules that are arranged into a ladder-like structure called a Double Helix. y A molecule of DNA is made up of millions of tiny subunits called Nucleotides. y Each nucleotide consists of:
1. Phosphate group 2. Pentose sugar 3. Nitrogenous base

Nucleotides

Phosphate

Nitrogenous Base Pentose Sugar

Nucleotides
y The phosphate and sugar form the backbone of the DNA molecule, whereas the bases form the rungs.

y There are four types of nitrogenous bases.

Nucleotides
A T

Adenine

Thymine

Cytosine

Guanine

Nucleotides
y Each base will only bond with one other specific base. y Adenine (A) y Thymine (T) y Cytosine (C) y Guanine (G)

Form a base pair.

Form a base pair.

DNA Structure
y Because of this complementary base pairing, the order of the bases in one strand determines the order of the bases in the other strand.

A C T C A G T

G A

G T C A

RNA
Found in cytoplasm, ribosomes & nucleus. Consists of a single-stranded nucleotide, which may be folded back on itself Copies the information carried by DNA for use in protein synthesis

The Importance of water in the cell

1.

Human body consists of 70% water.

2. H2O presents in living cells, lymph, blood plasma & interstitial fluid. 3. H2O is a polar molecule - unequal distribution of charges - each molecule has a +ve end & a ve end - the H end is slightly +ve - the O end is ve

4. H2O can dissolved many ionic compounds (because of its polar properties- can attract other ions n other polar molecule). 5. H2O molecule is V-shaped

Importance of water
a) Medium for biochemical reactions
H2O is eliminated during the synthesis of proteins, lipids & sugar H2O involved in the breaking down of proteins, lipids & carbohydrates in the food we eat Enzymatic reactions require H2O

b) Maintain the body temperature

H2O helps to distribute heat in the body. Excess heat is eliminated through perspiration, urination & defaecation. Evaporation of sweat dissipates body heat & cools the body surface. Evaporation of H2O fr plants (transpiration) keep plant tissues cool.

c) Solvent
H2O is the universal solvent H2O is a versatile solvent because of polarity of its molecules. Ionic & polar molecules can dissolve in H2O

d) Provide moisture
Provide moisture to respiratory surfaces (alveoli) ~ enables respiratory gases to dissolved in them before diffuse across the respiratory surfaces

e) Maintain osmotic balance & turgidity

In animals, the [ ] of dissolved inorganic salts in H2O is important in maintaining the osmotic balance between the blood & interstitial fluid. In plants, the cell sap in the vacuole contains H2O. A high osmotic [ ] in plant cells encourages H2O to enter the cells. This causes the cell to be turgid (provide support).

f) High surface tension & cohesion

H2O molecules have very high cohesion H2O can move in long, unbroken columns through the xylem tissue (maintain a continuous flow of H2O up to the stem of the leaves).

g) Provide support
Support the structure of a cell (90% of protoplasm made up of H2O)

h) Lubrication
Mucus & synovial fluid consist mainly of H2O Mucus assists the movement of food Synovial fluid lubricates the joints to ease the movements at the joints

i) Transport medium
Blood plasma contain 90% of H2O. It contains sugars, amino acids, O2 & CO2 which dissolve in H2O Waste products (urea) are excreted fr the body in the urine

Exercise
1. Name 2 major elements found in cells. 2. Explain why water is considered a good solvent. 3. How does water cool the body down on a hot day? 4. Explain why water is a polar molecule. 5. What are nucleic acids? 6. Name 2 types of nucleic acids found in cells. 7. Why are nucleic acids important to an organism?

1. C & H 2. Water readily dissolves most chemical compounds, including ionic or polar molecules. 3. When a persons body temp rises on a hot day, the heat is transferred to the sweat on his skin. The evaporation of sweat cools the body down. 4. The water molecule is polar because there is an uneven distribution of electrons between the H & O atoms. The H end of the water molecules is slightly positive & the O end is slightly negative.

5. Nucleic acids are macromolecules built fr building blocks called nucleotides. Nucleic acids contain C, H, O, N & P. 6. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) & ribonucleic acid (RNA) 7. Nucleic acids store & transmit genetic information.

Carbohydrates

 a)

Carbohydrates consist of C, H and O H : O ratio = 2 :1 3 main types of carbohydrates : Monosaccharides (simple sugar glucose, fructose, galactose) b) Dissaccharides (complex sugar maltose, sucrose, lactose) c) Polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen)

a) Monosaccharides (simple sugar)

Are monomers of carbohydrates Is the simplest carbohydrates Cannot be broken down into smaller units Are the basic sub-units of complex carbohydrates Are reducing sugars (reducing agent in Benedicts test)~ reduce copper(II)sulphate to copper(I) sulphate

 Glucose (grape sugar) - C6H12O6 - is the end product in the digestion of starch (rice & bread), found in plant n fruits Fructose (sweet fruits & honey) Galactose (milk)

 Long-chained monosaccharides + proteins = glycoproteins Long-chained monosaccharides + lipids = glycolipids

b) Disaccharides (complex sugar)

Consists of 2 monosaccharides joined together (condensation) glucose + glucose maltose + H2O glucose + fructose sucrose + H2O glucose + galactose lactose + H2O Condensation reactions remove one H2O molecules Can be broken down to monosaccharides through hydrolysis.

 Hydrolysis is the breaking up of large molecules by adding H2O maltose + H2O glucose + glucose sucrose + H2O glucose + fructose lactose + H2O glucose + galactose All disaccharides taste sweet, able to crystallize & are water-soluble Maltose & lactose are reducing sugars, sucrose is non-reducing sugar

 Sucrose (cane sugar)

- Made up of glucose & fructose - Found in sugar cane stems, sweet fruits, carrots - Plants transport carbohydrates fr leaves to roots in the form of sucrose - A coarse sugar used as a sweetener in beverages & cooking - Is non-reducing sugar

- When heat the sucrose with Benedicts solution, blue colour remain unchanged. - Sucrose hydrolysed into glucose & fructose when boiled with dilute acid (hydrolysis). - A brick-red precipitate formed when the hydrolysed solution tested with Benedicts solution.

Lactose (milk sugar) Made up of glucose & galactose Present in milk of mammals Are reducing sugar Maltose (malt sugar) Made up of 2 glucose molecules A product of the partial digestion of starch Used in brewing of beer Are reducing sugar

c) Polysaccharides
Are polymers formed by condensation of glucose monomers Insoluble in H2O Do not taste sweet & do not crystallize Can be hydrolysed (broken down) into smaller molecules by adding diluted acids & boiling through enzymatic reactions

 Starch - Found in wheat, rice, potatoes, bread & corn - The energy storage compounds in plants - Iodine test (test for the presence of starch in leaf. If starch is present, the iodine solution change fr brown blue -black

 Glycogen - Main reserve of carbohydrates in animals & yeast - Stored in liver & muscle cells Cellulose - Plant cell walls are made of - Provides support for plant cells

Carbohydrates (C, H, O)
Monosaccharides (simplest sugar) - Reducing sugar (Benedict`s test) Disaccharides (c mplex sugar) -c mbinati n f 2 m n sacc arides - c mbine: c ndensati n (H20) - breaking: ydr lysis ( + H2O) Malt se ( gluc se+gluc se) - Reducing sugar - Used in breewing beer Sucr se (gluc se+fruct se) -n n-reducing sugar - Cane sugar Polysaccharides - F rmed by c ndensati n f gluc se m n mers - Ins luble in water - Do not taste sweet Starc - rice, bread - Energy storage in plants - Iodine test (brownblue-black) Glycogen - Energy storage in animals - Found in liver, muscle

luc se - Grape sugar -end pr duct f starc digesti n

Fruct se - Sweet fruit, ney

Galact se - milk

Lact se (gluc se+galact se) -reducing sugar -milk f mammals

Cellulose - made up t e cell wall of plants

POP QUIZ!!

1. 2. 3. 4.

State the elements in carbohydrates State the types of carbohydrates State 2 examples for each carbohydrates Write the word equation of combination for below disaccharides : a) maltose b) sucrose c) lactose 5. Name a process involved in formation and breakdown of disaccharides and polysaccharides

Proteins

Complex organic molecules Made up of C, H, O, N, S, P Fish, meat, milk, nuts, eggs All proteins are made up of subunits called amino acids (monomer) Divide into 2 groups: a) essential amino acid b) non-essential amino acid

Formation and Breakdown of dipeptides and polypeptides when 2 amino acid molecules joined together by a peptide bond through condensation , a dipeptide is formed. a water molecule is removed during condensation
condensation Peptide bond dipeptide water

hydrolisis Amino acid

Further condensation reactions can link more amino acids to form a polypeptide chain (polypeptide consists of > 50 molecules of amino acids)

Importance of proteins
1. As a building blocks for many structural components of the cell (for growth) 2. Form enzymes (catalyze biochemical reactions) 3. Form hormones (control growth & metabolism) 4. Form antibodies (attack & destroy invading pathogens)

2 groups of amino acids

Essential amino acids Non-essential amino acids a) Essential amino acids
Cannot be synthesized by the body Can only be obtained fr a healthy diet 9 essential amino acids (leucine, valine, lysine)

Essential amino acids

1. First class proteins (animal proteins) Contain all the essential amino acids needed by the body 2. Second class proteins (plant proteins) Do not contain all the essential amino acids

b) Non- essential amino acids Can be synthesized by the body 11 non-essential amino acids E.g.: glycine, alanine, serine

Protein structures
4 different levels of protein structure a) Primary structure Linear sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule (polypeptide chain) Hormone insulin

b) Secondary structure Polypeptide chain coiled or folded to form an alpha-helix ( -helix) & betapleated ( -pleated) sheets. The -helix and -pleated sheet structures are helded together by hydrogen bonds.

c) Tertiary structure The -helix and -pleated sheet are folded / coiled into 3-dimensional shape The structure is maintained by ionic, disulphide & hydrogen bond Hormones, enzymes, plasma protein, antibodies, myoglobin

d) Quaternary structure 2 or more tertiary structure polypeptide chains are arranged to form a functional & complex protein molecule haemoglobin

Protein

Types of amino acids

Class of protein 2nd class

essential

Non- essential

1st

class

Level Protein Structure Primary Secondary structure structure

tertiery quarternary structure structure

Lipids

 Are organic compounds ~ C, H, O H : O ratio is larger than 2 : 1 ratio in carbohydrates (% of O2 in lipids is lower than in carbohydrates) Some lipids contain phosphorus & nitrogen Are non-polar molecule ~ insoluble in H2O, dissolved in other lipids & non-polar solvents (ether & ethanol)

Importance of lipids
Store energy for long terms Act as sources of energy Major part of the structure of cell membrane Act as a metabolic source of water Reduce the loss of water by evaporation

Main types of lipids

a) b) c) d) Fats & oils (triglycerides) Waxes Phospholipids steroids

a) Fats & oils

Fats are solid at room temperature (20C) Oils are liquid at room temperature Fats & oils are triglycerides Triglycerides An ester that formed through the condensation of 1 molecule of glycerol & 3 molecules of fatty acids - Can be broken down into fatty acids & glycerol by hydrolysis

 Fatty acids are either saturated or unsaturated Fats often contain only saturated fatty acids (saturated fats) Oils usually contain unsaturated fatty acids (unsaturated fats) Saturated fats are solids at room temp Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temp (oils)

 Importance of fats & oils - As energy reserves & storage materials - Provide 38 kJ of energy, carbohydrates provide 17 kJ energy per gram - Fats act as an insulator against the loss of heat

 Saturated fatty acids stearic acid CH3(CH2)16COOH Unsaturated fatty acids oleic acid CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH

Similarities & differences between saturated & unsaturated fats

Similarities
 Both are triglycerides  Yield 38 kJ per gram  Their molecules aggregate into globules because of their hydrophobic properties.

Differences
Saturated fats
Animal fats (lard), red meat, coconut oil, palm kernel oil, full cream milk & butter.

Unsaturated fats
Vegetable oils (corn oil, olive oil & soybean oil).

Fatty acids in saturated fats do Fatty acids in unsaturated fats not have double bonds between C have at least 1 double bond atoms. between C atoms. The C atoms are bonded to the max no of other atoms. The C atoms are not bonded to the max no of other atoms.

 Cannot any chemical bonds with other atoms or react with additional hydrogen atoms (all the bonds between C atoms have the max no of hydrogen atoms)

 Able to react with additional hydrogen atoms  Unsaturated fats with one double bond are called monounsaturated fats  Unsaturated fats with two/more double bonds are called polyunsaturated fats  Are liquids at room temperature.  Increase the level of HDL (good cholesterol) to LDL & lowers the levels of total cholesterol & LDL in the blood.

 Are solids at room temperature.  Raises the levels of LDL (bad cholesterol) in the blood.

b) Waxes
Are long-chained molecules (cause waxes to be waterproof). Are similar to triglycerides, but the fatty acids are bonded to long-chained alcohols rather than glycerol. Are produced by both plants & animals. Usually hard solids at room temp.

 Found on cuticles of the epidermis of leaves, fruits & seeds. Sebum that is excreted from the oil glands in the skin contains wax that soften the skin.

Importance of waxes
Used to waterproof the external surface of the plants & animals Cuticle of leaf Protective covering on an insects body A constituent of the honeycomb bees

c) Phospholipids
Are the main components of plasma membrane Control the permeability of plasma membrane Have a structure similar to triglycerides but one of the 3 fatty acids molecules is replaced by a phosphate group

 The end of the phospholipid molecule contain the phosphate group is hydrophilic. The other end contain the hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids which is hydrophobic. The hydrophilic end to the phospholipid molecule is soluble in water. The hydrophobic end is insoluble in water.

Hydrophilic head

2 hydrophobic fatty acid tails

d) Steroids
Steroids molecules has a complex ring structure. Occur in plants & animals. Included cholesterol & sex hormones (testoterone, oestrogen, progesterone) Cholesterol is the major component in plasma membrane.

 Cholesterol is a precursor for the synthesis of steroids & a raw material for vit. synthesis Unsaturated fats contain less cholesterol when compared to saturated fats. Liver controls the level of cholesterol in the blood. Unsaturated fats inhibit the synthesis of cholesterol in the liver.

Steroid Cholesterol Testosterone Oestrogen, progesterone

Function Synthesis of bile salts, steroid hormones & cell membrane Male reproductive hormone Female reproductive hormone

Exercise
1. The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is called the A. primary structures of proteins B. secondary structures of proteins C. tertiery structures of proteins D. quarternary structure of proteins

2. The monomers for insulin are A. amino acids B. dipeptides C. polypeptides D. proteins

3. Which of the following statements about lipids is true? A. unsaturated fats are solid at room temperature B. The human body does not need any cholesterol C. Olive oil is a type of saturated fat D. Human sex hormones are steroids

4. Diagram shows hydrolisis of fats.

fats

What are Q and R?

5. A triglyceride is formed through the

condensation of
A. one molecule of fatty acid and three molecules of glycerol B. one molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids C. two molecules of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids D. two molecules of fatty acids and three molecules of glycerol

Enzymes

Study of enzymes ~ enzymology Are proteins (act as biological catalysts). Speeds up biochemical reactions in cells. Remain unchanged at the end of the reactions. The reactant in an enzymatic reaction is called a substrate, the substance formed at the end of the reaction is called product.
Enzyme

Substrate

products

Metabolism ~ the biochemical processes occur in a cell

Metabolism includes: a) Anabolism build complex molecules (photosynthesis) b) Catabolism break down complex molecules (digestion & respiration) Without enzymes, biochemical reactions would be too slow to sustain life.

General characteristics of enzymes

1. All enzymes are proteins Enzymes are synthesized by living organisms 2. Enzymes speed up the rate of biochemical reactions Are not affected by the reactions they catalyse Increase the rate at which chemical reactions occur in cells Are much more efficient that inorganic catalysts

3. Enzymes are not destroyed by the reaction they catalyse Can be used again 4. Enzymes are need in small amounts Enzymes are used up but released at the end of each reaction A small quantity of enzyme can bring about a large amount of biochemical reaction One molecule of enzyme can turn thousands / millions of substrate molecules into products per minute

5. Enzymes can work in either direction Enzyme-catalysed reactions are reversible Reaction can proceed from left to right / from right to left 6. Enzymes are highly specific Each enzyme can catalyse only a single reactions or one kind of substrate Because : each enzyme has a specific active site to bind to particular substrate Eg : starch molecules (substrate) can fit into the active sites of salivary amylase (enzyme) while protein molecules cannot

7. Enzymes are denatured by high temperature Above 40C, the rate of reaction falls rapidly, ceasing altogether at about 60C Because : enzymes are proteins (denatured at high temp.) 8. Enzymes are sensitive to pH For every enzyme, there is an optimum pH at which it function best Small changes in pH of the medium will denature the enzyme & render it inactive

9. Enzyme activities can be slowed down or completely stopped by inhibitors Eg : heavy metals (lead & mercury) Inhibitors are substances that slow down / stop enzyme activity 10. Some enzymes require cofactors Cofactors bind to the enzymes, weaken the bonds in the substrate molecules Ferum & copper (inorganic cofactors), water soluble vit - vit B complex (organic cofactors / coenzymes)

Naming of enzymes
Derived from the name of substrate it catalyse Adding the suffix ase to the name of the substrates they hydrolyse Enzyme is written above the reaction arrow

 Sucrose (substrate) sucrase (enzyme) Lactose (substrate) lactase (enzyme) Lipid (substrate) lipase (enzyme)
sucrase

sucrose + water

glucose + fructose

Intracellular & extracellular enzymes

Enzymes are synthesized by specific cells

Enzymes can be divided into 2 groups : a) Intracellular enzymes b) Extracellular enzymes

a) Intracellular enzymes
Produced & retained in the cells Can be found in cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria & chloroplasts Eg : catalase & phosphorylase

b) Extracellular enzymes
Produced in the cell but secreted from the cell to function externally Eg : digestive enzyme (amylase & lipase) produced by the pancrease transported to the duodenum (for enzymatic reaction)

Synthesis of enzymes
Enzymes are synthesized by ribosomes Intracellular enzymes are synthesized on free ribosomes Extracellular enzymes are synthesized on ribosomes attached to ER.

Enzyme released
The enzyme packaged in vesicles (lysosomes)budded off from Golgi apparatus to plasma membrane

4 1
Ribosomes receive information from the nucleus to build protein

3
2

Golgi apparatus modifies the protein into specific secretionenzyme.

Rough ER transport proteins in vesicles to Golgi apparatus

Sequence in the synthesis of enzymes

1. The information for the synthesis of enzymes is carried by DNA (sequences of bases on the DNA are codes to make proteins). 2. In the nucleus, the DNA double helix unwinds & exposed its 2 strands for the synthesis of mRNA (messenger RNA). The mRNA is synthesized according to the instruction on the DNA. 3. The mRNA then leaves the nucleus & moves to ribosomes.

4. The mRNA attaches itself to the ribosome located on the ER. 5. As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, it reads information encoded within the mRNA. 6. The information is translated into a specific polypeptide chain which forms the enzyme. 7. When the enzyme synthesis has been completed, it is transported through the space within the rough ER.

8. The enzyme that depart from the rough ER wrapped in a transport vesicle (the bud off from the membranes of rough ER). 9. The transport vesicle fuses with membrane of Golgi apparatus, releasing the enzyme into Golgi apparatus. 10. In the Golgi apparatus, the enzyme is further modified before being packed in a secretory vesicle.

11. The secretory vesicle transports the enzyme to the plasma membrane. 12. The secretory vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane & the enzyme is released outside the cell.

Mechanism of enzyme action

 Each enzyme molecule has a region with a very precise shape ~ active site. Substrate molecule fits into the active site of the enzyme like a key into a lock (highly specific)

Lock & key hypothesis

Substrate molecule ~ key Enzyme molecule ~ lock Substrate molecule binds to the active site to form an enzyme-substrate complex (key fits into a lock)

 The enzyme catalyses the conversion of the substrate to products. Once formed, the products no longer fits into the active site but escape into the surrounding, leaving the active site free.

lock & key hypothesis explain that:

Why enzymes are specific Why any change in the shape of an enzyme alters its effectiveness

Factors affecting the activity of enzymes

1. Temperature
At low temp, the enzyme-catalysed reaction progress slowly (substrate molecules move at slow rate) As the temp increases, the rate of reaction increase : - Collision between the substrate & enzyme molecules occur more frequently - Random movement of molecules

- more frequent collisions between the substrate & enzyme molecules the chances of the substrate molecules contact with the active sites of the enzyme Every 10C rise in temp, the rate of enzyme reaction in a cell is doubled. The rate of reaction increases up to an optimum temp (max) - The temp an enzyme catalysed an reaction at the max rate - Most enzymes (humans & animals) ~ optimum 37C

 Above the optimum temp, rate of reaction sharply until it stops completely at 60C : - The bonds maintain the structure of the enzyme start to break - The active site loses its shape - The substrates can no longer fit into the active sites of the enzyme. - The enzyme is denatured

 Denaturation of enzyme is irreversible. It is important for the body to maintain its temp at an optimum level. Most organisms cannot survive at temp above 40C. Bac, live in hot springs have optimum temp between 80C & 100C.

2. pH
Enzyme is affected by acidity & alkalinity Optimum pH ~ the particular pH at which the rate of reaction is fastest. Most enzymes function optimally at a pH ranges from 6 to 8. Deviation fr the optimum pH the rate of reaction (bonds maintaining the tertiary shape of enzyme are broken).

 The active site loses its shape & the enzymesubstrate complex can no longer be formed. The enzyme is denatured. The effect of pH is normally reversible. Pepsin in the stomach ~ acidic (pH 2) Trypsin in duodenum ~ alkaline (pH 8.5)

3. Substrate concentration
Rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction direct proportion to the substrate [ ] until the reaction reaches a max rate. Beyond the max rate, the active sites of the enzyme molecules are fully occupied by the substrate molecules. The rate remain constant. The enzyme molecules are said to be saturated & the reaction has reached its max rate, Vmax

 Increase the substrate [ ] further has no effect on the rate of reaction. The [ ] of enzyme becomes a limiting factors. The only way to increase the rate of reaction is by increasing the [ ] of enzyme.

4. Enzyme concentration
The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction when the enzyme [ ] is , as long as :

a) No other factors are limiting the rate of reaction b) The substrate molecules available are in excess (more active sites available for enzyme action)

 Rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction is directly proportional to the [ ] of the enzyme present until max rate is achieved. Beyond the max rate, the [ ] of substrate becomes a limiting factor. When enzyme [ ] is doubled, the rate of reaction per unit time will be doubled as long as the substrates are present in excess [ ].

The uses of enzymes in daily life & industry

 Use of enzymes in industrial processes ~ enzyme technology Enzymes found in plants, animals, microorganisms (bac & fungi)

Application Enzyme
Dairy industry Lipase Rennin Lactase

Uses
Ripening of cheese Solidifies milk proteins Hydrolysis of lactose to glucose & galactose (making of ice-cream)

Brewing industry

Protease Breakdown of starch & proteins, prevent Amlylase cloudiness in stored beers Cellulose

Biological Protease, Detergent lipase, amylase Baking Industry Amylase Protease Glucose oxidase Meat industry Protease, papain

Removal of organic stains (gravy, oil & saliva)

Converts starch flour into sugar in the making of bread Breakdown of proteins Stability of dough Tenderizing of meats

Textile Industry

Amylase

Removal of starch applied to the threads of fabrics

Washing Protease, Powder/ amylase Detergent

Dissolve protein & starch stains in clothes

Leather Industry

Protease

Removal of hairs from hides

Paper industry

Ligninase

Removal of lignin from pulp

Starch Industry

Amylase Change starch to sugar in the making of Amylogluco syrup xidase

Glucose isomerase

Production of high fructose syrup (glucose converted to fructose. Fructose is much sweeter than glucose, therefore widely used in sliming products in small amounts) Removes the skin of fish Converts sugars into ethanol

Fish Industry

Protease

Alcoholic Zymase Drinks (beer/wine )

Cereal Grain Industry

Cellulase

Breakdown cellulose & removes seed coats from cereal grains

Seaweed industry

Cellulase

Extracts agar from seaweed

Pharmaceu Lysozyme tical & Medical Industry Trypsin

Antibiotic

Removal of dead tissues from wounds & burns Dissolves blood clots after heart attack

Urokinase

The importance of chemical composition in cells

1. carbohydrates
a) Glucose Storage of energy in plant & animal cells. Cells would lack energy to carry out life processes.

b) Starch Storage of energy in plant cells. Cells would lack energy to grow & divide (seed germination)

c) Glycogen Storage of energy in animal cells. Liver & muscle cells would not be able to carry out high metabolic activities.

d) Cellulose Gives structural support to the cell walls. Plant cells would lose their shape.

2. Protein
a) Microfilaments Associated with muscle contraction. Muscle cells would be unable to contract.

b) Microtubules Formation of cilia & flagella Unicellular organisms (Paramecium & Euglena) would be unable to move.

c) Pore proteins & carrier proteins Transportation of ions across the plasma membrane. Ions would be unable to enter/leave the cell.

d) Haemoglobin Carrier of O2 Red blood cells would be unable to carry O2.

e) Antibodies Important in defence against infectious diseases & in developing immunities. Cells would be invaded by pathogens (bac & viruses)

f) Hormones Causes changes to the metabolic reactions of cells. Cells would be unable to control metabolic reactions.

3. Lipids
a) Phospholipids Important constituent of cell membranes. There would be not cell membranes. Water & all other substances could enter & leave the cells freely.

b) Waxes Waterproofing material Cells in leaves, fruits & seeds would lose excessive H2O.

c) Fats & oils Certain unicellular aquatic organisms produce an oil droplet to aid buoyancy. These unicellular aquatic organisms would not be able to float.

d) Steroids Cholesterol strengthens the cell membranes at high body temp. Manufactures vit D & sex hormones. Cell membranes would be weak. Cells would not be able to produce vit D & sex hormones.

4. Enzyme
Catalyse the rate of biochemical reactions in cells. Biochemical reactions would be too slow to sustain lives of cells.