Chapter 16 Earthquakes

Photo credit: USGS

Effects of Earthquakes
Tsunamis
World Distribution of Earthquakes First-Motion Studies of Earthquakes

Soil Liquefaction - 1964 Nilgata, Japan

Surface Displacement - 1964 Alaska

Ground Rupture, 1906 Olema, CA

Fence Compression - Gallatin County, MT

Buckled Concrete - 1971 San Fernando, CA

Tsumani Generation

Tsunami Devastation - 1964 Alaska Earthquake

Tsunami Animation

Tsunami Wave Propagation Times

Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics

Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries Subduction Angle

Earthquake Prediction

different types of structures are associated with each boundary type: divergent/rifting: extensional (normal faulting) convergent/collisional: compressional (thrust faulting) transform/transcurrent: shear-dominated (strike-slip faulting)

Earthquake Distribution

Relative Plate Motions and Boundaries

Frequency-Intensity-Magnitude Relations

Measuring Earthquakes
Three distinct methods to measure earthquakes. Two based on energy and one based on intensity.
Richter Magnitude Scale: originally developed for southern California. Log scale, which has no upper bound. Small earthquakes may yield negative values. Tends to be inaccurate at >7 magnitudes. Moment Magnitude Scale: measurement of the amount of work done during the earthquake. Based on rock strength, area of rupture, and displacement during event. Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale: based on the damage associated with a particular event at a particular location. Ranges from I (less damage) to XII (more damage).

Earthquake First Motion Records

Focal Mechanisms

most subduction zones are in the Ring of Fire (so-called because of volcanism) of the Pacific
from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270

Convergent Boundary Earthquakes

seismicity along subduction zones: earthquakes are shallow, intermediate, and deep but have systematic location related to subducting slab

note: shallow adjacent to trench and deep farthest away

from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270

location of downgoing slab as it dives into mantle is defined by seismicity earthquakes occur along an inclined belt: the Wadati-Benioff zone reaches maximum depth of ~670 km deep intermediate shallow

from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270

epicenters: location of earthquake rupture projected to surface; dip of slab leads to observed seismicity patterns: deeper farther from trench

seismicity of subduction zones

all from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html

Divergent Boundary Earthquakes

earthquakes along mid-ocean ridge are shallower than those along subduction zone

from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html

Transform Boundary Earthquakes

the western US is somewhat anomalous

note absence of deep earthquakes

from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html

San Andreas Fault System

San Andreas Fault System is composed of several Distinct segments, which may rupture independently. N. California segment ruptured in 1906 San Francisco (>8 M) and 1989 Loma Prieta (>7 M) events. S. California segment ruptured in 1857 Fort Tejon (>7 M) and 1992 Landers/Big Bear (>7 M) events. Central segment near Parkfield is creeping and generates frequent, Small events.

Shallow vs. Deep Subduction Earthquakes

Ocean-continent convergent margins have earthquakes foci that extend to great depths. Mechanism tend to change from extension to compression downdip.

Continent-continent collision zones have broad areas of of relatively shallow seismicity

670-km Boundary and Slab Events

Wadati-Benioff zones: different dips in different locations where slab bends: earthquakes related to normal faults moderate depths: earthquakes related to thrusting along plate interface these most destructive at greater depth: earthquakes related to normal faulting again; slab may be stretched
from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

depth to which slab extends is controversial

tomography (3D seismic): blue is fast interpreted as slab

slab is cold and thus can have earthquakes at greater depths

note continuity of blue slab to depths on order of 670 km

from: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/coax/coax.html

Phase Changes and Slab Events

all from: http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~crlb/COURSES/270

Variable Slab Angle

Factors affecting slab dip angle include: Slab age -younger -> hotter and more buoyant Coupling with upper plate Kinematics of plate boundaries

Diachronous Convergence & Earthquake Events

Historical Earthquake Magnitudes

Eastern and Central US Seismicity

US National Seismic Hazard Map

Source: USGS NEHRP

New Madrid Seismic Zone

Source: Mattioli & Jansma, NEHRP proposal

New Madrid Slip Rate vs. Recurrence Time

Source: Mattioli & Jansma, NEHRP proposal; modified from Newman et al. 1999