Reproduction and reproductive cycle in amphibia

By :Chetan Msc part II Seat no: 6510

Reproduction in amphibia
In amphibian, the sexes are separate and the reproductive system can be studied as: A. Male reproductive system B. Female reproductive system

A. Male reproductive System: The male reproductive system consists of: 1) A pair of testes a) Vasa efferentia b) Bidder s canal c) Collecting Table Associated ducts. d) Urinogentital duct e) Cloaca
So the spermatic fluid containing sperms are produced inside the testis and passes successfully through vasa-efferentia, Bidder s canal, transverse collecting duct. Urinogenital duct and finally stored in the seminal vesicle. During copulation, sperms are ejected outside through the cloaca.

Female Reproductive System: Female reproductive system of amphibian consists of 1. A pair of ovary, 2. Oviducts, 3. Ovisacs (Uterus), 4. Cloaca. Ovaries:
Ovaries are yellow colored and irregular in shape, but during breeding season they become much enlarged and extended into the body cavity assuming black coloration.

structure of the ovary:

The ovary is lined with an outer layer of peritoneal epithelium and inner layer of germinal epithelium comprising single layer of germinal cells. in between the two layers lies connective tissue, nerve fibers and blood vessels. The germinal cells undergo the process of Oogenesis to form mature ova. The mature ovum is large size due to the accumulation of yolk materials. It contains single nucleus and more nucleoli. The ovum is surrounded by inner vitelline membrane and outer follicular epithelium.

 The cells of germinal epithelium undergo rapid division and form many small groups of cells, called ovarian follicle. But one of the cell of the ovarian follicle becomes larger grows in size and become the ovum. But the remaining cells surround the ovum in single layer to form follicular epithelium which provides nourishment to the ovum, within the follicle; the ovum secretes a vitelline membrane around itself. The ova ore enlarged during breeding season by the growth of the cytoplasm.

Oviduct:

The paired oviducts are long, coild, whitish tube extend anteriorly up to the base of the lungs on either side and open into the coelomic, through cup shaped ostia.

Ovisac: The posterior most part of the oviduct is dilated to form a brand, thin walled and highly distensible sac, called ovisac or uterus.

Reproductive functions and Structures of Amphibians

Frogs
Male Body StructureUrogenital Organs: Fat bodies, testicles, spermatic canal, adrenal gland, kidneys, ereters, bladder, cloacaFemale Body StructureUrogenital Organs: Fat bodies, ovaries, adrenal gland, oviducts, kidneys, uterus, bladder, cloaca Copulation Males and Females get into the amplexus position; sperm and eggs are released simultaneously, fertilization occurs outside of the bodies of the both the male and the female

Gestation/Parturition Eggs are either left alone, buried on land or carried by the parent until it is ready to hatch (a few days to a few weeks); tadpole changes into a frog in a liquid environment through metamorphosis Mating Behaviors A male mounts any female he desires in the position of amplexus; Some males accidently mount other males and one would hear release call by the mounted male.

Reproductive behavior of frogs and toads: Males typically call until a female comes into their territory and then they quickly jump onto the back of the female and hold on. Males have thicker and stronger front legs than females to help them hold on, and they even develop special grasping pads, called Nuptial Pads, on one or more fingers of each hand to help their grasp. This behavior is called Amplexus.

Males can get so excited that they will sometimes grab onto other males, other species of frogs, and even other animals, such as fish

Toad
Male Body StructureUrogenital Organs: Fat bodies, testicles, spermatic canal, adrenal gland, kidneys, ereters, bladder, cloaca Female Body StructureUrogenital Organs: Fat bodies, ovaries, adrenal gland, oviducts, kidneys, uterus, bladder, cloaca Copulation Males and Females get into the amplexus position; sperm and eggs are released simultaneously, fertilization occurs outside of the bodies of the both the male and the female Gestation/Parturition Eggs are laid in fresh water and hatch around 10 days post fertilization depending on the temperature of the environment Mating Behaviors Is by amplexus but he attracts the female through a mating call.

Salamanders/Newts
Male Body Structure Testis, Mullerian duct, Wolffian duct, cloaca Female Body Structure Ovaries, oviducts, Wolffian duct, cloaca Copulation Sperm packet deposited by male in water which are taken up by female for internal fertilization Gestation/Parturition Lay eggs or development within the female for anywhere from 3 weeks to 2 years Mating Behaviors Male seeks out female and wafts glandular secretions toward her by fanning of his tail.

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR OF SALAMANDER OR NEWTS

The males hold on tight and swim around the pond using their huge tails. One uses the toes on his hind feet to stroke a female, probably to make her receptive to take his spermatophore.

 During the breeding season, adult male Rough-skinned Newts develop nuptial pads on the toes to improve their ability to hold onto females during amplexus. Compare with the toes of a breeding female without these pads. Some salamanders lay eggs on land and the young are born as miniature versions of the adults.

Caecilians

Caecilians are the only order of amphibians that use internal insemination. Males have a penis like organ called a phallodeum which is the extruding part of the cloaca. This is inserted in the cloaca of the female for 2 to 3 hours. Females have eggs and embryos similar to what fish have which lack the amnion and chorion structures that are present in mammals, reptiles, and birds.

 Caecilian embryos typically develop in a gelatinous egg case. About 25% of them lay eggs which the female guards. The remaining 75% of caecilian young are born viviparous and develop inside their mothers feeding off the egg yolk. After the embryos use up all the egg yolk they begin to feed on uterine milk that is secreted by the oviducts.

Reproductive behavior of caecilians:

As with all caecilians, fertilization is internal. Spermatozoa are placed inside the female's cloaca via the male's phallodeum (copulatory organ). Large white eggs strung together by gelatinous strands are deposited in hidden nests, where the female attends them until they hatch. Upon hatching, the larvae leave the nest and wriggle to a stream, where they spend an unknown amount of time feeding on small aquatic organisms until they metamorphose into subadults. After metamorphosis, they leave the streams and take up a terrestrial, burrowing lifestyle.

Reproductive processes in amphibia

In male Spermatogenesis: In amphibia sprmatogenesis is of cystic type. The cell in the cyst are derived from single spermatogonium. spermatogenic activity are classified in to following stages:I. primary spermatogenesis II. secondary spermatogenesis III. primary spermatocyte IV. secondary spermatocyte V. spermatid VI. sperm bundles

 The primary spermatogonia are the largest germ cell types present in the adult testis.;it consist of eosinophilic cytoplasm and irregular shaped nucleus located adjacent to the basement membrane of the seminiferous tubule. There are two type of spermatogonia primary spermatogonia and secondary spermatogonia. Secondary spermatogonia consist of basophilic cytoplasm and nuclei. They are smaller than the primary spermatogonia.

 The division of spermatogonia represent the the proliferation phase of spermatogenesis. After the last multiplication division both cytoplasm and nuclei of the cell increases in size and become eosinophilic. At the end of growth period of spermatogenesis the cells become larger,the cytoplasm is entirely eosinophilic enter into the pre-reductional stage.These are primary spermatocyte.

 The first meiotic division produces secondary spermatocyte which are smaller than the primary spermatocyte. The cytoplasm of secondary spermatocyte remains eosinophilic. The intercellular vacuole increase in size and become more evenly distributed,the cell nest are situated in the central part of the testis tubules. After the second meiotic division spermatid are formed. The spermatid are small globular cells, distictly smaller than the secondary spermatocytes wit eosinophilic cyotplasm and special basophilic nucleus. During this the intercellular vacuoles fuse into one big central vacuole and the cells are situated against the wall of seminiferous tubule.

 The head of maturing sperm cells are found embedded in the sertoli cells. Every cell nest changes into about a dozen sperm bundles. As many as 200 sperm re produced out of one spermatogonium,hence cystic type of spermatogenesis found in amphibia is believe to be an adaptation for producing large number of spermatozoa needed for external fertilisation.

Hormones Involved in Spermatogenesis Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH), also called LH Testosterone Inhibin

Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis

Hypothalamus GnRH Anterior Pituitary ICSH/LH FSH

Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis

ICSH /LH Interstitial Cells

Testosterone

Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis

FSH Testosterone

Sertoli Cells

Spermatogenesis

Inhibin

Sertoli cell Are the only somatic elements present inside the seminiferous tubules. They are often called as follicular cells. Leydig cell Leydig cells scattered between the tubules produce testosterone & other androgens. They show seasonal changes depending on species.

T.S. of Testis

In female Oogenesis: Maturation of the Egg. In the ovary, early germ cells called oogonia are diploid. Oogonia grow to become primary oocytes. After the first meiotic division, the cytoplasm divides unequally and only one secondary oocyte and one polar body result. Following the second meiotic division, one ootid and another polar body result. The ootid develops into a functional ovum. Meiosis is usually arrested at the beginning of meiosis and is not completed until ovulation or fertilization.

Growth of oocytes in the frog

T .S. OF OVARY

Follicular atresia
Changes occuring during follicular atresia : Hypertrophy of follicular cell Appearance of vacuoles at the periphery of the oocyte Regular zona pellucida and follicular epithelium are not seen. Gradual degeneration and disappearance of phagocytic granulosa cells .

Corpus luteum
It is a transient structure and degenerate markedly within 2-3 days and completely resorbed between 6-10 days.

Reproductive cycle in amphibia

1. Testicular Cycle:- It is divided into 2 type. a) Spermatogenetic Cycle:- It is the annual changes in the number of various spermatogenetic stages in relation to rainfall ,mean day light length and temperature. Rana cyanophlyctis and Rana tigerina two different pattern of spermatogenetic cycle. In R. cyanophlyctis maturation of germ cells is not restricted to any specified part of the years, hence there is no appreciable seasonal variation in the rates of meiotic or meitoti activities. Thus spermatogenesis is continuous type. Because of minor changes in spermatogenesis activity seasonal changes in the mean testis weight during the breeding season is not drastic. spermatogenesis is interrupted in winter months . The sperm are absent in winter month though spermatids are present in fair number.

 In R. tigerina , distinct seasonal changes occur in rates of mitotic proliferation of new germ cell cysts as well as in the meiotic division of primary spermatocytes into spermatocyte and spermatids. The secondary spermatogonia are produced throughout the year but mitotic activity in them is very prominent between April- June. Few secondary spermatocytes are formed in septemberoctober during post-breeding period. and this eventually undergn degeneration during November- February. The seasonal changes in the mean testis weight in R. tigerina correlate well with the changes in spermatogenetic activity.

b) Leydig Cell Cycle: In the skipper frog, the Leydig cell nucleus size remains the same year round. On the other hand in the bull frog distinct seasonai variation is seen in leydig cell size, the nuclear diameter, shape and number . They are round , abundant and exhibit maximum nuclear diameter during the breeding period (May-June). The Leydig cell nuclei in May-June contain coarse chromatin granules. Soon after breeding , Leydig cell becomes flattened or shrunken and reduced in the size and number . During this period, they posses fine chromatin granules . They remain in this stage form August to March. Later in April they rapidly increase in size and become rounded. The redistribution of chromatin material takes place. so that the coarse granules charateristic once appears.

Ovarian cycle
Based on the seasonal changes in the GSI, diameter of the largest oocytes and gross histological changes in the ovary, the ovarian cycle can be arbitrarily divided into the following phases: 1. Pre-breeding or preparatory phase (January to March). The ovary during this period contained large pre-ovulatory follicles. The number and size of oocytes increased during March-April and this was followed by vitellogenesis which was completed by the end of May. 2. Breeding phase (April to October). During this period the ovaries were gravid and capable of spawning. The weight of ovaries increased drastically and the maximum weight was attained in October. The onset of monsoon rains in May/June acts as a trigger for breeding of toads. Ovarian weight and the diameter of the largest oocytes in many individuals declined significantly following the breeding.

3. Post breeding phase (November and December). The period between November and December may be considered as post breeding period. During this period there was a marked decrease in the relative ovarian weight and the diameter of largest oocyte. Also the ovary contained oogonia, previtellogenic follicles and follicles undergoing vitellogenesis.

The ovarian cycle in amphibians is regulated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The intrinsic factors include hypophyseal gonadotrophins and ovarian oestrogen. The extrinsic factors are temperature, light, rainfall and relative humidity which serve as the environmental synchronisers of gametogenetic and breeding activities

 In Rana cyanophlyctis, all stages of oocyte development are present throughout the year owing to continuous and asynchronous gametogenetic activity, but quantitative differences occur in the frequency distribution of the first growth phase (FGP) and second growth phase (SGP) oocytes. The number of SGP oocytes influences ovarian weight; therefore, seasonal changes in the number of SGP oocytes and ovarian mass are correlated. Mean ovarian weight and gonadosomatic index follow comparable changes during the annual cycle. The body mass of the frog undergoes only minor seasonal variations.

 Small FGP oocytes always formed the dominant type in the ovary. The breeding season extends over 2 months (July September) and an adult R. cyanophlyctis spawns 3,000 ,500 eggs of 1,300 1,350 m diameter in size. The breeding is not followed by any resting period, and therefore oogonial proliferation and recruitment of FGP oocytes start soon after the breeding months (OctoberDecember). Atretic oocytes are present in all months but their number is greatest during prebreeding and breeding months. The frequency distribution of oocytes in the right and the left ovaries is identical. The oviducts undergo seasonal changes that are correlated with ovarian weight, whereas the fat body cycle is inversely related to ovarian weight.