Errors & Calibration

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Lecture4,5

Measurement Errors
Gross error Systematic error Random error

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Lecture4,5

Measurement Errors
Gross Error
due to lack of knowledge, judgment and care (operator)
zeroing zero adjustment parallax error repetition

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Lecture4,5

Measurement Errors
Systematic Error
Concerned with instruments & components used in measurement

provided

with information related to static & of differences in characteristics of

dynamic characteristics

significance confirm
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one instrument with other should be appreciable stated accuracy limits calibration
Lecture4,5 4

against standards

Measurement Errors
Systematic Error
Environmental factors

temperature, estimation

humidity,

magnetic

&

electric

fields, mechanical vibrations of extent to which they can degrade quality of measurement

adopting air conditioning, magnetic shielding etc. measure the same measurand by more than one
instrument or method
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Measurement Errors
Random Error
Due to causes that can not be specified for their effect with certainty on the measured value

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will be there even if all the gross and systematic errors are eliminated, residual errors uncontrollable and unavoidable effect is evident by random character of the readings obtained when the measurement is repeated statistical analysis

Lecture4,5

Measurement Errors
Statistical Analysis of Random Error
difficult to locate and isolate the sources no idea when and why these errors creep into measured value statistical methods for estimation of the best value applicable conditions only when measurement of same quantity is repeated several times under same

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Lecture4,5

Measurement Errors
Statistical Analysis of Random Error
measurement is repeated N times each

xi is called a variate

x1 , x2 ,.........xN

group of N variates raw data

x + x + x + ...... + xN 1 x= 1 2 3 = mean of the set N N

x
i =1

deviation - departure of a variate from the mean

di = xi x
8

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Lecture4,5

Measurement Errors
Statistical Analysis of Random Error
1 mean or absolute deviation d = N

d
i =1

if the deviation of a variate is defined as the difference of it from an arbitrary value x instead of mean, then mean of the readings is the most probable value

di2 = ( xi x ) 2 = xi2 2 xxi + x 2 S = d i2 = xi2 2 x xi + Nx 2

i =1 i =1 i =1
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dS =0 dx _ 1 N x = xi = x N i =1
9

Measurement Errors
Statistical Analysis of Random Error
measure of extend of the random error rms deviation
1 D= N d i =1
N 2 i 1 2

when N is very large D is called standard deviation

2 - variation or dispersion of
probable value
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about the most

10

Measurement Errors
Statistical Analysis of Random Error
1 = di2 when N is not very large N 1 i =1
N 1 2

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11

Measurement Errors
Graphical representation of data
histogram or frequency distribution graph
x smallest increment f - frequency f ralative frequency (normalized ) N f z= N x

as N is made large and x is small smooth curve

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Measurement Errors
Graphical representation of data
area of a particular bar is thus numerically equal to the probability that a particular reading will fall within an associated interval area of the entire histogram will be unity limiting case, curve relates x with the probability density distribution function

z = p( x)

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13

Measurement Errors
Graphical representation of data
probability of a measured value or variate lying between two values and

x1given by2 is x

P ( x1 < x < x2 ) =

x2

x1

p( x)dx

probability of a reading within a chosen value of x is given by cumulativex distribution function

F ( x) =
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Lecture4,5 14

p ( x )dx

Measurement Errors
Graphical representation of data
commonly used distribution function: normal/Gaussian

1 p( x) = e 2

( x )2 [

2 2

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15

Measurement Errors
Graphical representation of data
h=
_

2
h ( h2 d 2 ) e

x= p (d ) =

h-measure of spread or scatter of the measured values about the mean- precision index
Probability (%) Deviation (d)

50 68.3 95.4 99.7

0.6745 2 3
16

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Lecture4,5

Measurement Errors
50% values will be scattered about the mean with deviation of d = 0.6745 (probable error,r) Mean and standard deviation determined from the experimental data are not true values _ x s

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Lecture4,5

17

Calibration
Reference standard at least 10 times accurate Read standard & test instruments simultaneously Input is held constant at several values over the range of the instrument Carried out under stipulated environmental conditions Take readings in both ascending & descending order
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Calibration Process
If there is no difference between the readings of standard & test instruments, no error

Yo = mX i + C

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19

Calibration Process
Adjust zero of the instrument Increase the input quantity Increase up to full scale in steps and then reduce to zero

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Calibration Process
If a certain extent of scatter is noticed, use the least square criterion To minimize the sum of the squares of the deviations of output from the input values from 2 N the best fit line
S = [Yi (mX i + C )]
i =1

C X i + m X i2 = X iYi
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S S = 0, =0 m C NC + m X i = Yi

Calibration Process
Solving;

X Y X Y m= N X ( X ) ( Y )( X ) ( X Y )( X ) C= N X ( X )
N
i i i i 2 i 2 i 2 i i i i i i 2 i 2

Standard deviations of m & C;

s =
2 m

2 Ns y

X i2 (

2 sC =

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Lecture4,5

2 Y

1 = ( mX + C Y ) N
N X i2 (
i

2 sy

X i2 )

X i2

Yi 2 )
i

22

Calibration Process
Xi=100units, m=1.02 and C=0.4; Instrument should read 102.4 Method of least squares can be applied for determining higher order polynomials for fitting the data Y = aX 2 + bX + c
S=

i =1

[Yi (aX i2 + bX i + c)] S = 0, b S =0 c

23

S = 0, a
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Lecture4,5

Standards
6 fundamental SI quantities International standards (IBWM, Paris) Primary standards (NSL) Secondary standards (IL) Working standards

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24

Primary Standards
Mass mass of cubic decimeter of its temp of max density of 4C Length- one meter long, distance between two lines engraved on a platinum-iridium bar - 16,50,763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the orange-red radiation of krypton 86 atom Time-one second, interval of time corresponding to 9,192,631,770 cycles of atomic resonant frequency of cesium-133
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Primary Standards
Electric current absolute ampere, current balance which weighs the force exerted between two current carrying coils Luminous intensity black body radiator held at the temperature of solidification of platinum (2042K), one sixtieth of the luminous intensity per square cm of the radiator surface.

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