Energy and the Environment

Bat t eri of a es ll sh .. ape s an d

size s !!

A general description of a battery is a device which has electricity as both input and output. Batteries have been around for a very long time. (Volta 1800, Plante 1860)

Charge once

Recharge

A general description of a battery is a device which has electricity as both input and output. Batteries have been around for a very long time. (Volta 1800, Plante 1860)

Charge once

Recharge

Throw away

Reuse

Categories
Batteries, as we know, come in all shapes and sizes. i) ii) iii) Energy density Power density W.hr / kg W/ kg

Volumetric energy den. W / m3

Categories
Batteries, as we know, come in all shapes and sizes. i) ii) iii) Energy density Range W.hr / kg

Power density W/ kg Maximum Acceleration Volumetric energy den. W / m3 Size

what features are we looking for ? i + ii + ii --> high, ie high energy density plus high charging current (== short time to recharge) operation at ambient temperature. useful operation voltage unlimited charge/discharge cycles

2H+,SO4discharge charge PbO2 Pb

Most common battery todate has been the lead-acid battery.

Charging Cycle

PbSO4 + 2H20 -> Pb02 + H2SO4 + 2H+ +2ePbSO4 + 2H+ + 2e- -> Pb + H2SO4

2H+,SO4discharge charge PbO2 Pb

Most common battery todate has been the lead-acid battery. Both Plates become converted to lead sulphate during discharge. DIS-Charging Cycle

PbSO4 + 2H20 <-- Pb02 + H2SO4 + 2H+ +2ePbSO4 + 2H+ + 2e- <-- Pb + H2SO4

Eg:

A student, studying Energy and the Enviroment, decides to convert her (or his) Ford Festiva into an electric vehicle. Fortunately, lying around in the physics department is a revolutionary new desgin electric transmission, with conversion kit included, which will do the job. Detailed analysis of this system has revealed an overall efficiency of 40% from battery to wheels. The student, being a good student, decides to research the problem in detail, prior to installing the new transmission, and purchasing the batteries.

Detailed analysis of this system has revealed an overall efficiency of 40% from battery to wheels. The student, being a good student, decides to research the problem in detail, prior to installing the new transmission, and purchasing the batteries. What are some of the issues involved ?

Now it emerges that the student intends to drive from home (Charlton) to uni every day. This is a distance of 200 km. Repeated tests have shown that this requires 40 kW.hr A quick phone call to the geography department reveals that this drive also includes some hills. A back of the envelope calculation concludes that 20Hp of engine would achieve enough acceleration to climb these hills. A second phone call to Pacific-Dunlop identifies the PCD-800 as their best battery, providing 50 W.hr/kg, weighing 30kg, and having power density 70 W/kg. How many batteries should she buy ?

Range:

200 kms = 100 kW.hr of batteries -> 2000 kg.

40,000 W.hr 0.4

PCD-800s --> 100 kW.hr 50 W.hr.kg-1 Power: 20HP

= 20 HP * 746 W/HP 0.4 = 37 kW = 500 kg

At the turn of the century, the were just as many electric vehicles, as petrol powered, on the road. Energy density is crucial to our acceptance. cf mobile phones etc..

Fuel Cells A fuel cell converts chemical energy of a fuel directly into electricity. As such, it is not restricted by any limitations to efficiency of the 2nd law of thermodynamics. So, theorertically, it is possible to achieve 100% conversion efficiency with fuel cells. Strictly speaking they are not batteries, but they do have many similarities.

Hydrogen seems an attractive choice for secondary fuel. Abundance: 90% of atoms 75% or mass (Universe)

On earth, it is quite rare, accounting for less than 1 part per million. Why ?

Production of hydrogen: By electrolysis of water. Production of electricy: By oxidation of hydrogen !

Fuel Cell Technology (see Apollo 13) Load H2 e e H+ O2

cathode

H+

anode

Load H2 e e H+ O2

Hydrogen gas enters a porous anode where it comes into contact with an electrolyte and a catalyst. It produces ions according to: 2H2 --> 4e- + 4H+

cathode

H+

anode

Load H2 e e H+ O2

2H2 --> 4e- + 4H+ The protons (ions) move through the electrolye where the reaction 4e- + 4H+ + O2 -> 2H2O

discharges the ions. The net reaction is 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O, where the electrons move through the outer load, producing a potential differnece.

cathode

H+

anode

This process is very efficient, and can easily be implemented on a large scale. Fuel cells have the added benefit of being load-independent. However ! We have to produce the hydrogen in the first place. This is not easy. Electrolysis is a well established process, but yields efficiencies of about 60%. Other ideas ?

The reaction involved is 2H2O -> 2H2 + O2 This can be achieved with electrical energy. (inefficient) Another approach is to exploit the fact that the electric potential required for decomposition decreases, as the temperature increases, going to 0 at T = 2700K. obviously, this is impractical, but temperatures of 1000K are possible with direct solar. A promising alternative is to use sunlight to replace part of the electrical energy required. Several other options are being investigated, such as using algae, but none seem practical at present.

Distribution: We already have existing infrastructure in place ! However, we do have to seriously address safety issues involved.

2MW Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell power plant demonstration in Santa Clara, California

http://www.fuelcells.org/pics/ercbig.jpg

Mechanical Storage: We encounter mechanical storage devices everyday. In simplest form, rotational energy is stored in a flywheel for use at a later time. This of course asssumes that it has not been used up, for example by frictional losses in bearings. On a small scale, we know of toys, potters and spinning wheels etc... On a large scale, buses, power supplies etc..

How is the energy stored ? As a sum of the individual kinetic energies of the individual mass elements that comprise the fyl-wheel. .

When a wheel is in rotation, each of these mass elements has kinetic energy proportional to the square of its velocity. The velocity is proportional to the product of the rotation speed, and the distance from the axis of rotation. Thus, the energy stored in a flywheel varies as the square of the rotation speed multiplied by a factor which includes the wheels mass distribution

When a wheel is in rotation, each of these mass elements has kinetic energy proportional to the square of its velocity. The velocity is proportional to the product of the rotation speed, and the distance from the axis of rotation. Thus, the energy stored in a flywheel varies as the square of the rotation speed multiplied by a factor which includes the wheels mass distribution. ie K.E. = k * I * w2 where w = 2 pi * (rev/sec) OH

Energy density of a fly-wheel Energy Mass For a disc I = 1/2 MR2 E/M = 1/2(1/2MR2) M = 1/4R2 2
2

1/2 I M

For a ring I = MR2 E/M = 1/2(MR2) M = 1/2 R2 2

2

Energy density of a fly-wheel Energy Mass = 1/2 I M

2

In general, the energy density is E/M = constant * R2

2

where the constant is shape dependent

Goal: maximise E/M

Force towards centre for circ. motion

Area

Clearly, there must be some upper limit for based on the tensile strength of the material. If follows that the maximum F/A =
mx a

The result is that Edens (max) Shape Factor

mx a

.K

So, we choose a material with high tensile strength and low density.

So:

For a flywheel to be useful as an energy store it must rotate as fast as possible. However, its angular velocity is limited by the tensile strength of the material used. Conventional material, such as steel give rather low energy density.

Example: A passenger bus derives its power from a flywheel which is recharged at each bus stop. The mass of the flywheel is 1000 kg, and it is in the form of a solid disk of diameter 180cm. When fully charged, the flywheel rotates as 3000 rpm. a) what is the max kinetic energy of the flywheel b) what is the maxium distance between stops, if 20 kW of power are reuiqred to operate the bus.

Example: A passenger bus derives its power from a flywheel which is recharged at each bus stop. The mass of the flywheel is 1000 kg, and it is in the form of a solid disk of diameter 180cm. When fully charged, the flywheel rotates as 3000 rpm. a) what is the max kinetic energy of the flywheel b) what is the maximum distance between stops, if 20 kW of power is required to operate the bus.

a)

K.E. = 1/2 * I * 2 where = 2 pi * (rev/sec)

so KEmax = 1/2 (0.5 MR2) * 2 = 1/2 (0.5 * 1000 * 0.81) * (3000/60*2pi)2 = 20 MJ b) 1 W = 1 Js-1, so 1 sec requires 20 kJ 1 min 1200 kJ 10 min 12 MJ 16 min 20 MJ

Q: How fast would a solid disc flywheel of r=50cm and mass=140kg need to rotate to match the output of a petrol engine, fueled with 10Kg of petrol ? Assume Efficiences are: flywheel 80%, engine 15% ?

Compressed Air Air can be rapidly compressed and slowly expanded. Such a technique is used already to smooth out pressure variations in hydraulic systems. The energy densities achievable with compressed air are rather impressive.

Consider for example the slow compression of 1m3 of air at a pressure of 2 atmospheres to a volume of 0.4m3, at a constant temperature. For n molecules of a perfect gas, we have pV = nRot from which it follows that V2 V2 E= p dV = n RoT 1/V dV V1 V1

from which it follows that V2 V2 E= p dV = n RoT 1/V dV V1 V1 = p1V1 log (V1/V2) = 0.19 MJ And so, in a compressed state, the energy density is 0.48 MJm-3 , ie quite high. The challenge is to decrease lossess due to heat production.

Ex: When air is compressed, its temperature increases as given by: T2 = T1 (P2 / P1 ) T2 (n-1)/n where n = 1.4 for air. a: calculate the final air temperature if air, initially at a temperature of 20 deg C and pressure of 1atm if compressed to 100 atm.

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