Quantitative Ecology

Popoulation Ecology
Biotic potential Natality Mortality Migration Survivorship r and k strategies Factors limiting population size and distribution Liebigs Law Shelfords Law Carring capacity Sigmoid shape of growth curve

 Population ecology is a major sub-field of ecology that deals with the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment Population ecology has also played an important role in the development of the field of conservation biology especially in the development of population viability analysis (PVA) which makes it possible to predict the long-term probability of a species persisting in a given habitat patch (e.g., a national park).

 Population genetics is the study of gene pools and evolution whereas population ecology is the study of how biotic and abiotic factors influence the density, size, distribution, and age of a population

 Biotic potential (Science: biology, ecology) The potential growth a population of living things can expect if it were living under ideal environmental circumstances. It is when the population just keeps on growing and growing.

 Biotic potential is the maximum reproductive capacity of a population under optimum environmental conditions. Full expression of the biotic potential of an organism is restricted by environmental resistance, any condition that inhibits the increase in number of the population.

 It is generally only reached when environmental conditions are very favorable. A species reaching its biotic potential would exhibit exponential population growth and be said to have a high fertility, that is, how many offspring are produced per mother.

 Biotic Potential is a fundamental species characteristic, defined by Chapman (1925) as "the inherent power of organisms to reproduce and survive". In 1931, Chapman redescribed it as: "It is a sort of algebraic sum of the number of young produced at each reproduction, number of reproductions over a period of time, sex ratio of the species, and their general ability to survive under given physical conditions."

 Chapman relates to a "vital index":

Vital Index = (number of births/number of deaths)*100

Biotic potential is the highest possible vital index of a species; therefore, when the species has its highest birthrate and lowest mortality rate.

 If the potential value of population increase can be determined, the impact of the environment upon the population also can be determined. Compute the biotic potential (potential increase) and subtract the actual or observed value of decrease; this difference represents how effective the environment is in preventing the species from attaining its full potential. Chapman called difference between potential and actual value the environmental resistance.

 Components of Biotic Potential Reproductive potential - potential natality: It is the upper limit to biotic potential (in the absence of mortality) Survival potential: Because reproductive potential does not account for the number of gametes surviving, survival potential is a necessary component of biotic potential; it is the reciprocal of mortality (in the absence of mortality, biotic potential = reproductive potential)

 Chapman identified two components: nutritive potential - the ability to acquire and utilize food for growth and energy protective potential - potential ability of the organism to protect itself against the dynamic forces of the environment
assuring successful fertilization (mating) care of young

Natality Definition noun, plural: natalities The birthrate, which is the ratio of total live births to total population in a particular area over a specified period of time; expressed as childbirths per 1000 people (or population) per year

 Noun natality (plural natalities) The ratio of live births in an area to the population of that area; expressed per 1000 population per year. birth rate, fertility rate

 Mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in some population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit time.

 It is distinct from morbidity rate, which refers to the number of individuals in poor health during a given time period (the prevalence rate) or the number who currently have that disease (the incidence rate), scaled to the size of the population.

Migration
Animals travel in their billions all over the Earth, sometimes like the Arctic Tern covering global distances. Animal migration represents a masterpiece of biological adaptation and programming.

 Migration refers to directed, regular, or systematic movement of a group of objects, organisms, or people

What is migration and why do it?

Animals that live in habitats that are difficult to survive in year round, must evolve a way to cope with the difficult time of year. A strategy used by many mammals and other species is hibernation. Migration is another option for animals that can move across long distances. They survive by leaving the area for part of the year or part of their life, and move to habitats that are more hospitable.

 A population is defined as all the organism within an area belonging to the same species. OR A localized group of individuals of the same species that can interbreed, producing fertile offspring.

 Population density is the number of individuals of a certain species per unit area or volume, and population distribution is the pattern of dispersal of them within that area.

 The density and distribution of a population changes with time, due to abiotic factors(inorganic factors) as well as biotic factors(organic factors).

 A survivorship curve is a graph showing the number or proportion of individuals surviving at each age for a given species or group (e.g. males/females). Survivorship curves can be constructed for a given cohort (a group of individuals of roughly the same age) based on a life table.

Define survivorship curve.

A plot of the number of members of a cohort that are still alive at each age; one way to represent agespecific mortality.

Describe a Type I survivor ship curve and what it says about the population. Flat at the start, reflecting low death rates during early and middle life, and then drops down steeply as the death rates increase among older age groups; produce few offspring but provide good care

Describe a Type II survivor ship curve and what it says about the population. Constant death rate over an organisms life span; predators dont care whether full grown or baby?

Describe a Type III survivor ship curve and what it says about the population. Drops sharply at the start, reflecting very high death rates for the young, but flattens out as death rate decline for those individuals that survive the early period of die-off; produce large number of offspring but dont provide good care at all

 There are three generalized types of survivorship curve, which are simply referred to as Type I, Type II and Type III curves.

 Type I survivorship curves are characterized by high survival in early and middle life, followed a rapid decline in survivorship in later life. Humans are one species that show this pattern of survivorship. Type II curves are an intermediate between Type I and III, where roughly constant mortality rate is experienced regardless of age. Some birds follow this pattern of survival. In Type III curves, the greatest mortality is experienced early on in life, with relatively low rates of death for those surviving this bottleneck. This type of curve is characteristic of species that produce a large number of offspring (see r/K selection theory).

 The number or proportion of organisms surviving is plotted on the y-axis, generally with a logarithmic scale starting with 1000 individuals, while their age, often as a proportion of maximum life span, is plotted on the x-axis.

 Survivorship curves denote mortality patterns of a certain population over a certain period of time. It may vary in abnormal conditions, but in most cases the pattern stay predictable.

 Curve I is characteristic of a population in which most individuals survive well pass the midpoint. On the contrary, Curve III typifies populations wherein most individuals die young. In the type II curve, survivorship decreases at a constant rate throughout the lifespan.

r/K selection theory

In ecology, r/K selection theory relates to the selection of combinations of traits that trade off the quantity and quality of offspring to promote success in particular environments.

 In r/K selection theory, selective pressures are hypothesised to drive evolution in one of two generalized directions: r- or K-selection. These terms, r and K, are derived from standard ecological algebra, as illustrated in the simple Verhulst equation of population dynamics

 where r is the growth rate of the population (N), and K is the carrying capacity of its local environmental setting. Typically, rselected species exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood.

 In contrast, K-selected species are strong competitors in crowded niches, and invest more heavily in fewer offspring, each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood. In the scientific literature, rselected species are occasionally referred to as "opportunistic", while K-selected species are described as "equilibrium".

Carring capacity of enviromnent (K)

Carrying capacity is the total number of organisms that can be supported by the environmental resources in an ecosystem The area occupied by a population has limited the resources and this limits the population growth by maintaining an equilibrium between the natality rate and the mortality rate. Population size increases until it reaches saturation within caring capacity of its ecosystem The carring capacity of an ecosystem is not constant as it is affected by environmental conditions.

For r-selected species, "r" refers to the growth rate term in the logistic population growth model. For these species, population sizes and mortality tend to be variable and unpredictable. Since populations frequently are far from carrying capacity ("K"), intraspecific competition often is weak. Selection tends to favor individuals with rapid development, high and early reproduction that is not repeated, small body sizes, high resource requirements, and short lives. The potential for populations of r-selected species to grow is large.

 In contrast, k-selected species have more constant mortality and population sizes that often are close to carrying capacity. Intraspecific competition tends to be strong. Selection favors slower development, late, repeated reproduction, long lives, and efficient use of resources.

Population growth
Population growth is the change in population over time, and can be quantified as the change in the number of individuals in a population using "per unit time" for measurement

 The term population growth can technically refer to any species, but almost always refers to humans, and it is often used informally for the more specific demographic term population growth rate and is often used to refer specifically to the growth of the population of the world.

Population growth rate

In demographics and ecology, Population growth rate (PGR) is the fractional rate at which the number of individuals in a population increases. Specifically, PGR ordinarily refers to the change in population over a unit time period, often expressed as a percentage of the number of individuals in the population at the beginning of that period. This can be written as the formula:

 The above formula can be expanded to: growth rate = crude birth rate crude death rate + net immigration rate, or P/P = (B/P) - (D/P) + (I/P) - (E/P), where P is the total population, B is the number of births, D is the number of deaths, I is the number of immigrants, and E is the number of emigrants.

 In the natural world, limiting factors like the availability of food, water, shelter and space can change animal and plant populations. Other limiting factors like competition for resources, predation and disease can also impact populations. If any of the limiting factors change, animal and plant populations change, too.

 Limiting Factors Limiting factors are things that prevent a population from growing any larger. For example, 10 rabbits may live in a habitat that has enough water, cover and space to support 20 rabbits, but if there is only enough food for ten rabbits, the population will not grow any larger. In this example, food is the limiting factor.

 Food is not the only factor that may limit population growth. For example, there may be enough food to support a thousand birds in a certain area, but only suitable nesting sites for one hundred. Or perhaps there is plenty of food, water, cover and space to support a larger population of pheasants in an area, but predators are the limiting factor.

 Limiting factors are very closely tied to carrying capacity. Many kinds of animals can increase in numbers very quickly, and may temporarily exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat. This results in stress, starvation, disease, predation and parasites, poor reproductive success and damage to the habitat.

 For example, multiplying muskrats can very quickly eat all the vegetation in a marsh. With the vegetation gone, food becomes the limiting factor and the muskrats may starve or move to another area. The marsh now has a reduced carrying capacity for muskrats until the vegetation grows back again.

Climatic and biotic factors affect the size of a population

Climatic factors:temperature, light intensity, wind, water current, oxygen Biotic factors:food source, competition, predation, parasitism

 The size and density of a population are affected by various factors. Some of the important ones are: a) Birth rate or Natality rate b) Death or Mortality rate c) Age distribution (Age composition)

d) Immigration e) Emmigration f) Carrying capacity (Resources) g) Natural calamities h) Abiotic and biotic factors i) Population fluctuations and cycles

Differences between
Natality rate and Mortality rate

c) Age distribution (Age composition)

Tutorial 16
(a) Sketch a graph showing the survivorship curves for a population of human beings (k strategists), a population of oysters ( r strategists) and a population of hydras.(3 marks) (b) Using the graphs in (a), explain the survival patterns of the population of humans, oysters and hydras.(5 marks) Describe the adaptation characteristics of organisms which use K and r strategists to survive.(7 marks)

 Population ecologists commonly divide the factors that regulate the size of populations into density-dependent and density-independent factors.

 Density-independent factors, such as weather and climate, affect the same proportion of individuals in a population regardless of population density. In contrast, the effects of densitydependent factors intensify as the population increases in size....

Density dependent factors

Density dependent factors typically involve biotic factors, such as the availability of food, parasitism, predation, disease, and migration. As the population increases, food become scarce, infectious diseases can spread easily, and many of its members emigrate.

Density Independent Factor

A factor that affects the size of a population independent or regardless of the population density. In ecology, density independent factors are the physical or abiotic factors like weather, forest fire, pollutant, etc.

What are examples of density independent factor? weather, climate

Interspecific competition
Interspecific competition, in ecology, is a form of competition in which individuals of different species vie for the different resource in an ecosystem (e.g. food or living space).

Intraspecific competition
intraspecific competition, which involves organisms of the same species sleeping with one from the other.

 Competition is only one of many interacting biotic and abiotic factors that affect sexual community structure. Moreover, competition is not always a straightforward, direct, interaction. Interspecific competition may occur when individuals of two separate species share a limiting resource in the same area.

 Interference competition involves direct interactions between individuals such as fighting over limiting resources.

 This form of competition is typically, though not always, detrimental to both individuals and both species involved. These interactions are usually asymmetric with one species having an advantage over the other resulting in greater loss by one competitor. For example, large predators like canids have a significant size advantage over smaller predators such as foxes or weasels. A violent interaction between two of these species would likely result in victory for the larger predator. The stability of some mammalian carnivore populations is maintained through these conflicts over prey resources.

 An example of interference competition in which only one party is negatively affected is allelopathy, in which plants of one species release toxic chemicals that inhibit the germination and survival of other potential competitors. Some animals utilize a similar strategy. For example, algae in the feces of the common frog, Rana temporaria, inhibit the tadpoles of the competing natterjack toad, Bufo calamita.

Trees in this Bangladeshi forest are in competition for light.

Population dispersion
The spatial distribution at any particular moment of the individuals of a species of plant or animal.

 Under natural conditions organisms are distributed either by active movements, or migrations, or by passive transport by wind, water, or other organisms.

 The act or process of dissemination is usually termed dispersal, while the resulting pattern of distribution is best referred to as dispersion.

 Dispersion is a basic characteristic of populations, controlling various features of their structure and organization. It determines population density, that is, the number of individuals per unit of area, or volume, and its reciprocal relationship, mean area, or the average area per individual.

It also determines the frequency, or chance of encountering one or more individuals of the population in a particular sample unit of area, or volume. The ecologist therefore studies not only the fluctuations in numbers of individuals in a population but also the changes in their distribution in space.

Principal types of dispersion

The dispersion pattern of individuals in a population may conform to any one of several broad types, such as random, uniform, or contagious (clumped).

This research attempts to determine the environmental factors (abiotic factors) and species interactions (biotic factors) that may explain the observed patterns

 To calculate the dispersion pattern the study area is divided into quadrats. The number of individuals in each quadrat are then counted and the mean number of organisms per quadrat and the variance among quadrats is calculated.

 Any pattern is relative to the space being examined; a population may appear clumped when a large area is considered, but may prove to be distributed at random with respect to a much smaller area.

Random or haphazard
Random or haphazard implies that the individuals have been distributed by chance. In such a distribution, the probability of finding an individual at any point in the area is the same for all points. Hence a truly random pattern will develop only if each individual has had an equal and independent opportunity to establish itself at any given point. Examples of approximately random dispersions can be found in the patterns of settlement by free-floating marine larvae and of colonization of bare ground by airborne disseminules of plants. Nevertheless, true randomness appears to be relatively rare in nature.

Uniform distribution
Uniform distribution implies a regularity of distance between and among the individuals of a population. Perfect uniformity exists when the distance from one individual to its nearest neighbor is the same for all individuals. Patterns approaching uniformity are most obvious in the dispersion of orchard trees and in other artificial plantings, but the tendency to a regular distribution is also found in nature, as for example in the relatively even spacing of trees in forest canopies, the arrangement of shrubs in deserts, and the distribution of territorial animals.

contagious or clumped,
indicating the existence of aggregations or groups in the population. Clusters and clones of plants, and families, flocks, and herds of animals are common phenomena.

The formation of groups introduces a higher order of complexity in the dispersion pattern, since the several aggregations may themselves be distributed at random, evenly, or in clumps. An adequate description of dispersion, therefore, must include not only the determination of the type of distribution, but also an assessment of the extent of aggregation if the latter is present.

Factors affecting dispersion

(1) the action of environmental agencies of transport, (2) the distribution of soil types and other physical features of the habitat, (3) the influence of temporal changes in weather and climate, (4) the behavior pattern of the population in regard to reproductive processes and dispersal of the young, (5) the intensity of intra- and interspecific competition, (6) the various social and antisocial forces that may develop among the members of the population.

Liebig's law of the minimum

It states that growth is controlled not by the total of resources available, but by the scarcest resource (limiting factor). This concept was originally applied to plant or crop growth, where it was found that increasing the amount of plentiful nutrients did not increase plant growth.

 Only by increasing the amount of the limiting nutrient (the one most scarce in relation to "need") was the growth of a plant or crop improved. This principle can be summed up in the aphorism, "The availability of the most abundant nutrient in the soil is as available as the availability of the least abundant nutrient in the soil."

 For example, the growth of an organism such as a plant may be dependent on a number of different factors, such as sunlight or mineral nutrients (e.g. nitrate or phosphate).

 The availability of these may vary, such that at any given time one is more limiting than the others. Liebig's Law states that growth only occurs at the rate permitted by the most limiting. For instance, in the equation below, the growth of population O is a function of the minimum of three Michaelis-Menten terms representing limitation by factors I, N and P.

Shelford's law of tolerance

stating that the presence and success of an organism depend upon the extent to which a complex of conditions is satisfied (e.g. the climatic, topographic, and biological requirements of plants and animals). The absence or failure of an organism can be controlled by the qualitative or quantitative deficiency or excess of any one of several factors which may approach the limits of tolerance for that organism.

Management and conservation of ecosystems

Conservation is important for the following reasons: (a) Utilitarian/pragmatic reasons (b) Ecological reasons (c ) Aesthetic reason (d) ethical/moral reasons

Importance of conservation of the ecosystem

Contain biological resources;medicine Biogeochemical cycles, extinction of some species resulting in the destruction of an ecosystem May lead to global climatic changes Ecosystems in their natural state provides aesthetic values for humans For future generations

Importance of conservation of the ecosystem

Management and conservation programmes are aimed at sustaining the biodiversity of ecosystems and at the same time, maintaining or improving the quality of life.

Example:forests
Contain large biodiversity;contain many undiscovered species that may have economial or medicinal values. Producing rain as the transpiration of plants in forest releases water into environment Important role in carbon cycle Maintaining soil fertility and in preventing floods

Sustainable development
Development that can continue indefinitely. It is achieved by minimising the use of non-renewable resources and controlling the use of renewable resources of the earth

Example;
Replanting programmes Creating forest reserves Restoration programmes of damaged forest Selective logging Enforcement of laws and surveillance to prevent illegal logging Recycling of paper to reduce the demand for new raw materials.

Quantitative Methods
Sampling theories Measures of central tendency Mean Mode Median Measures of dispersion Range Standard deviation Standard error Variance sampling

Types of estimation
Objective methods Subjective methods

Sampling methods
Quadrat (i) Frame quadrats (ii) Point quadrats Capture-recapture/mark-releaserecapture method

Sampling parameters
Species frequency Species density Species cover

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING METHODS

 The usual sampling unit is a quadrat. Quadrats normally consist of a square frame, the most frequently used size being 1m2 (see picture below). The purpose of using a quadrat is to enable comparable samples to be obtained from areas of consistent size and shape.

 Rectangular quadrats and even circular quadrats have been used in some surveys. It does not really matter what shape of quadrat is used, provided it is a standard sampling unit and its shape and measurements are stated in any write-up.

 It may however be better to stick to the traditional square frame unless there are very good reasons not to, because this yields data that is more readily comparable to other published research. (For instance, you cannot compare data obtained using a circular quadrat, with data obtained using a square quadrat. The difference in shape of the sampling units will introduce variations in the results obtained.)

 The estimation can be improved by dividing the quadrat into a grid of 100 squares each representing 1% cover. This can either be done mentally by imagining 10 longitudinal and 10 horizontal lines of equal size superimposed on the quadrat, or physically by actually dividing the quadrat by means of string or wire attached to the frame at standard intervals. This is only practical if the vegetation in the area to be sampled is very short, otherwise the string/wire will impede the laying down of the quadrat over the vegetation.

 There are three main ways of taking samples. 1. Random Sampling. 2. Systematic Sampling (includes line transect and belt transect methods). 3. Stratified Sampling.

 . SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING a) Line Transect Method b) Belt Transect Method

Line Transect Method

A transect line can be made using a nylon rope marked and numbered at 0.5m, or 1m intervals, all the way along its length. This is laid across the area you wish to study.

 A line transect is carried out by unrolling the transect line along the gradient identified. The species touching the line may be recorded along the whole length of the line (continuous sampling). Alternatively, the presence, or absence of species at each marked point is recorded (systematic sampling). If the slope along the transect line is measured as well, the results can then be inserted onto this profile.

Belt Transect Method

In this method, the transect line is laid out across the area to be surveyed and a quadrat is placed on the first marked point on the line. The plants and/or animals inside the quadrat are then identified and their abundance estimated.

STRATIFIED SAMPLING
Stratified sampling is used to take into account different areas (or strata) which are identified within the main body of a habitat. These strata are sampled separately from the main part of the habitat.

 A Practical Study of the Capture/Recapture Method of Estimating Population Size

 The capture/recapture technique (also known as the Lincoln Index) is used to arrive at estimates of the size of populations of mobile animals, like ground beetles and woodlice. An initial sample of the population in question is caught, its individuals marked and then released back into the wild, and a note taken of the number released. These marked individuals are allowed to become randomly dispersed throughout the population and then a second sample is taken. Its size and the number in it of marked, and hence recaptured, individuals is noted.