Area IIC: The Living World

Ecosystem Diversity
Known species 1,412,000
Other animals 281,000

Insects 751,000

Fungi 69,000 Prokaryotes 4,800

Plants 248,400 Protists 57,700

Ecosystem Components Biodiversity is a renewable resource found in the Earths variety of genes, species, ecosystems, and ecosystem processes
genetic diversity: variety of genetic material within a species or population species diversity: number of different species in different habitats ecological: variety of ecosystems in area functional: biological and chemical processes needed for survival

Origins of Life Chemicals evolved first, then life formed

chemical reactions on the early Earth led to more complex chemical, eventually leading to life (chemical evolution)

speculative

life began as single-celled prokaryotes, then single-celled eukaryotes, then multicellular organisms

started 3.7 bya (Earth 4.55 byo)

information comes from fossils and rocks

Fig. 5-2 Hypothesized evolution sequence

Chemical Evolution (1 billion years) Formation of the earths early crust and atmosphere Small organic molecules form in the seas Large organic molecules (biopolymers) form in the seas First protocells form in the seas

Biological Evolution (3.7 billion years)

Single-cell prokaryotes form in the seas Single-cell eukaryotes form in the seas Variety of multicellular organisms form, first in the seas and later on land

2004 Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning

Fig. 5-3 History of life

Modern humans (Homo sapiens) appear about 2 seconds before midnight Recorded human history begins 1/4 second before midnight Origin of life (3.63.8 billion years ago)

Age of Age of mammals reptiles midnight Insects and amphibians invade the land

First fossil record of animals Plants begin invading land

noon Evolution and expansion of life

Introduction to Evolution Evolution involves changes in gene pools

evolution:
the idea that species change over time and the processes that have caused those changes based on the interactions between populations of organisms and their environments not a change in an individual organism does not always result in new species

Charles Darwin (1809-82)

Voyage of HMS Beagle

Darwins Theory of Evolution Natural selection acting on random variations is the mechanism for evolution

occurrence of descent

geology and fossils Darwin observed fossils of animals that appeared related to modern animals

Sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rocks and fossils

Extinct mammals

Megatherium americanum

Darwins Theory of Evolution

Occurrence of Descent, cont.

Biogeography: study of the range and geographic distribution of life-forms on Earth Darwin observed animals in South America similar to those in England he also observed variations between mainland and island species, and even inter-island species tortoises on the Galapagos Islands finches on the Galapagos Island

Patagonian hare

Galapagos Islands

Galapagos tortoises, finches

Darwins Theory of Evolution

Natural Selection and Adaptation

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) 1. evolution has occurred 2. natural selection is the mechanism (cause) of evolution

Darwins Theory of Evolution

natural selection and adaptation

Darwins logic observation #1: there are more young produced than can survive observation #2: population sizes are relatively stable observation #3: limited resources are available to organisms inference #1: living things experience a struggle to exist

Darwins Theory of Evolution

natural selection, cont.

Darwins logic, cont. observation #4: individuals vary observation #5: much variation is heritable inference #2: best fit individuals survive and reproduce inference #3: populations will change over time, accumulating favorable characteristics

Variation in a population

Coquina variation

Darwins Theory of Evolution

natural selection, cont.

some definitions: natural selection: environmental selection of organisms most fit to reproduce fitness: reproductive success of an individual relative to other members of a population adaptation: trait that helps an organism be more suited to its environment

Artificial selection - dogs

Artificial selection - plants

Darwins Theory of Evolution

natural selection, cont.

descent with modification all living species descended from ancient species diverse modifications (adaptations) accumulated over time through natural selection today, it is thought that mutation is the ultimate source of variations Darwin had no knowledge about the source of variation

Evidence for Evolution Many lines of evidence support the theory of evolution

fossil evidence
fossils: buried remains of organisms older (deeper) rock has simpler organisms and newer rock has more complex organisms there are transitional species

Archaeopteryx

Evidence for Evolution

biogeographical evidence
distribution of species isolated areas should have unique species Australia: isolated, only native mammals are marsupials, only one marsupial anywhere else Galapagos finches similar areas should have similar (yet genetically different) species cacti (N.A.) and euphorbia (Africa)

Marsupials in Australia

Evidence for Evolution

anatomical evidence

if organisms share common ancestors, they should share some similarities example: all mammals have 7 cervical (neck) vertebrae and similar forelimb bones homologous structures: structures that are anatomically similar because they are inherited from a common ancestor; similar form, different function

Homologous structures

Homologous structures

Evidence for Evolution

anatomical evidence, cont.

if unrelated organisms adapt to similar environments, they should have some similar features example: bird, bat, butterfly wings analogous structures: structures that have similar functions but different forms NOT evidence of common ancestry

Evidence for Evolution

anatomical evidence, cont.

vestigial structures: structures, believed to be left over from an ancestor, that have reduced function or no function examples ostrich wings snake pelvis human tailbone whale pelvis and legs

Ostriches

Evidence for Evolution

anatomical evidence, cont.

embryological development species believed to be related go through similar stages of development all vertebrate embryos have structures called pharyngeal pouches form gills in fish form middle ear cavity, Eustachian tubes, tonsils, and glands in people

Evidence for Evolution

biochemical evidence
similar chemistry: DNA, cytochrome c, other molecules closely related species have similar genes, therefore similar proteins

Biochemical differences

Microevolution Principles of genetics explain how populations vary and change

population genetics
Modern Evolutionary Synthesis applies natural selection to genetics microevolution: changes of the gene pool of a population, all the members of one species (that interbreed) in a particular area macroevolution: changes at or above the species level; large changes resulting in new species by the accumulation of small changes over time natural selection causes these changes

Microevolution

population genetics, cont.

gene pool: all alleles at all gene loci in all individuals of a population variation in gene pool is key to natural selection a gene pool is to a population as a genotype is to an individual gene pools can be described in terms of gene frequencies, the percentage occurrence of particular alleles or genotypes

Microevolution

population genetics, cont.

microevolution example peppered moth in England pre-Industrial Revolution, white moths more common, rested on white trees to avoid being bird food during Industrial Revolution, trees covered with soot black moths survived, white moths became bird food, so black moth frequency (and allele) increased called industrial melanism

Moths on light tree trunk

Moths on dark tree trunk

Microevolution

causes of microevolution
genetic mutations result in multiple alleles gene flow movement of alleles between populations by migration of breeding individuals can increase variation in a population, decreases isolation makes gene pools similar can prevent speciation

Gene flow

Microevolution

causes of microevolution, cont.

nonrandom mating assortative mating: individuals mate with others of the same phenotype intrasexual selection: males fight for the right to mate example: Bighorn sheep intersexual selection: females exhibit choosiness example: peahens

18.1 Microevolution

causes of microevolution, cont.

genetic drift changes in allele frequencies due to chance more likely in small populations bottleneck effect: prevents most genotypes from participating in production of next generation example: California condors, population dropped to 20 birds, limits variation

Genetic drift

Microevolution

causes of microevolution, cont.

genetic drift, cont. founder effect: small, strange population breaks off of larger population example: Amish have more polydactyl dwarves then rest of the world natural selection biggest influence on frequencies results in adaptation (others dont)

Founder effect

Causes of microevolution

Natural Selection Natural selection results in adaptation to the environment

natural selection is the process that results in adaptation of a population to the biotic and abiotic environments

requires variation inheritance differential adaptiveness differential reproduction

Effect of selection on finch beak size

Natural Selection

types of selection
natural selection usually acts on polygenic traits which display a range of phenotypes directional selection occurs when an extreme phenotype is favored example: antibiotic resistance in bacteria stabilizing selection occurs when an intermediate phenotype is favored example: size of galls made by gall-flies disruptive selection occurs when extreme phenotypes are favored over the intermediate phenotype examples: British land snail coloration, male lazuli bunting coloration

Normal distribution

Directional selection

Fig. 18.6 Directional selection

Stabilizing selection

Fig. 18.7 Stabilizing selection

Disruptive selection

Bio Fig. 18.8 Disruptive selection

Natural Selection

maintenance of variation
genotypic variation is maintained by: mutation recombination (ex: flowers prevent selfpollination) gene flow (ex: male wolves out of pack) disruptive selection diploidy makes heterozygotes possible heterozygotes maintain recessive alleles heterozygotes sometimes have an advantage over homozygotes example: malaria resistance and sickle cell anemia

Heterozygote advantage

Bio Fig. 18.9 Sickle cell disease

Macroevolution Macroevolution requires reproductive isolation

macroevolution: evolutionary change at or above the level of species speciation: the splitting of one species into two or more species or the transformation of one species into a new one

Macroevolution

What Is a Species?

biological species concept: a group of populations that can breed among themselves to produce fertile offspring members of one species cannot reproduce with members of another species members of a species have a shared gene pool

Bio Fig. 18.10 Species concept

Macroevolution

What Is a Species?, cont.

reproductive isolating mechanism: any structural, functional, or behavioral characteristic that prevents successful reproduction from occurring prezygotic isolating mechanisms prevent reproduction attempts or successful fertilization habitat isolation temporal isolation behavior isolation mechanical isolation gamete isolation

Bio Fig. 18.11 Temporal isolation

Macroevolution

What Is a Species?, cont.

reproductive isolation, cont. postzygotic isolating mechanisms prevent hybrid offspring from developing or breeding zygote mortality hybrid sterility F2 fitness

Isolating mechanisms

Macroevolution

modes of speciation
allopatric speciation: origin of new species between populations that are separated geographically examples: squirrels across Grand Canyon, salamanders in CA sympatric speciation: origin of new species in populations that overlap geographically example: polyploid plants

Bio Fig. 18.12 Allopatric speciation

Bio Fig. 18.13 Sympatric speciation

Fig. 5-7 Geographic isolation

Arctic Fox

Northern population

Early fox population

Spreads northward and southward and separates

Different environmental conditions lead to different selective pressures and evolution into two different species.

Adapted to cold through heavier fur, short ears, short legs, short nose. White fur matches snow for camouflage.

Southern population

Gray Fox
Adapted to heat through lightweight fur and long ears, legs, and nose, which give off more heat.

Forms of speciation

Macroevolution

modes of speciation, cont.

adaptive radiation involves many new species arising from a single ancestral species when members become adapted to different environments particular form of allopatric speciation examples: Galapagos finches, Hawaiian honeycreepers

Steps in adaptive radiation

Bio Fig. 18.14 Adaptive radiation

Fig. 5-6 Evolutionary divergence

Fruit and seed eaters Insect and nectar eaters Greater Koa-finch Kuai Akialoa Amakihi Kona Grosbeak

Akiapolaau

Crested Honeycreeper

Maui Parrotbill

Apapane

Unknown finch ancestor

Speciation, Extinction, and Biodiversity Extinction happens when an entire species ceases to exist

all species eventually become extinct, just as all individuals eventually die
background extinction: low rate of extinction due to changing, local environmental conditions (1-5/million/yr) mass extinction: high rate of extinction due to changing, widespread conditions (25-70% of species)

Fig. 5-9 Biodiversity and extinction

Carboniferous

Ordovician

Jurassic

Pre-cambrain

Number of families

Cretaceous

Silurian

Cambrian

Devonian

Permian

Triassic

1600

Terrestrial organisms
Marine organisms
Quaternary

1200

800

400

0 3500 545

500

440 410

355

290

250

205

145

65

Millions of years ago

Tertiary

1.8 0

What Is the Future of Evolution? Humans use artificial selection to change genetic characteristics of populations

humans pick members of a population with genetic traits they like and breed them to produce offspring with such traits

Fig. 5-10 Traditional crossbreeding

Crop Desired trait (color) Crossbreeding

Pear

Apple

Offspring
Crossbreeding

Best results

New offspring

Desired result

What Is the Future of Evolution? Genetic engineering involves the production of new combinations of genes
genes can be extracted from the genome of one species and inserted into the genome of another resulting organisms are called genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or transgenic organisms can be used to clone organisms

Fig. 5-11a Modifying genes

Phase 1 Make Modified Gene cell Identify and extract gene
gene with desired trait

Identify and remove portion of DNA with desired trait

DNA plasmid

Remove plasmid from DNA of E. coli

DNA
Insert extracted DNA (step 2) into plasmid (step3)

E. coli

Genetically modified plasmid plasmid

Insert modified plasmid into E. coli

Grow in tissue culture to make copies

Fig. 5-11b Making a transgenic cell

Phase 2 Make Transgenic Cell Transfer plasmid copies to a carrier agrobacterium

A. tumefaciens (agrobacterium)

Agrobacterium inserts foreign DNA into plant cell to yield transgenic cell

Plant cell Nucleus Host DNA

Foreign DNA Transfer plasmid to surface microscopic metal particle

Use gene gun to inject DNA into plant cell

Fig. 5-11c Growing GM plant

Phase 3 Grow Genetically Engineered Plant Transgenic cell from Phase 2

Cell division of transgenic cells

Culture cells to form plantlets Transfer to soil

Transgenic plants with new traits

What Is the Future of Evolution? Some people have concerns about genetic engineering
Who will receive genetic therapy? Will it affect health insurance or employment? How will GM organisms affect wild organisms and ecosystems? Should GM food be labeled as such?

Fig. 5-8 Continental drift

LAURASIA
12080 40 80 120 120 80 80 120

GONDWANALAND

225 million years ago

135 million years ago

EURASIA AFRICA
120 80 MADAGASCAR 120 120 0 40 120

65 million years ago

Present