L1: Topics

Units
Fundamental units
Derived units
Terminology in measurement
Significant Figures
Error Analysis in Measurement
Sources
Types of error
Statistical analysis
Uncertainty estimation
Fundamental Units
Quantity Standard Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Matter mole mol
Definitions
Derived Units
Terminology
Metrology is defined as the science of measurement
Instrumentation the application of instruments for
sensing, monitoring and measurement
Measurand a physical quantity to be measured
Measurement the comparison of a measurand with
the standard
Calibration the process of quantitative comparison
between a known standard and the output from an
instrument for the same quantity
Error deviation from the true value of the measured
variable
Significant Figures
The precision of the measurement is expressed in
terms of significant figures. The more significant
figures, the greater the precision of a
measurement.
1.25*10
-3
mA is better than 1.3*10
-3
mA the former
has 3 significant figures while the latter has only 2.
The correct notation for significant figures
117.1 V 1.171*10
2
(4 significant figures)

0.0035 3.5*10
-3
(2 significant figures)

120000 1.2*10
5
(2 significant figures)
Example
R1 = 18.7 O (3 s.f.)
R2 = 3.624 O (5 s.f.)
R=R1+R2= 22.324 O (5 s.f) = 22.3 O
The blue figures are doubtful
R = 35.68 O (3 s.f.) and I = 3.18A (5 s.f.)
V=IR= 113.4624=1.13*10
2
V
There are 3 significant figures involved in the
multiplication, the answer can only have a maximum of 3
significant figures
Tutorial 1
A set of independent voltage
measurements was recorded as
117.02V, 117.11V, 117.08V, and
117.03V. Calculate
(a) the average voltage
(b) the range of error
Error Analysis in Measurement
Error the error of a measurement is the difference
between the result of the measurement and the true
value of the quantity being measured
Measured value = True value + error
X = T + e
Types of error
Systematic error e
s
:can be minimized/calibrated
Random error e
r
: unpredictable variations, can be
evaluated by statistical method
X = T + e
s
+ e
r
Sources of Error
Instrument construction error: the inherent effects within
the manufacturing procedures
Determination error: uncertainty due to the resolution of
instrument
Approximation error: error introduced in determining one
quantity in terms of others
Aging errors: related to old equipment
Calculation error: related to insufficient digits
Environmental effects: environmental interferences
Insertion errors: loading effect due to the insertion
Strays and residuals: related the existence of connection
impedance between measurand and instruments
Types of Errors
Systematic error: it is divided into two
categories
Instrumental errors
Environmental errors
Random errors: due to unpredictable
causes.
Can not be corrected by any method of
calibration or control.
Systematic Errors
Instrumental errors: errors inherent in the instruments
due to their structures (i.e. always over/under-
estimated). Instrumental errors may be avoided by
Selecting a suitable instrument for measurement
Calibrating the instrument & applying correction
factors
Environmental errors: due to conditions external to the
instrument (temperature, humidity, E, B fields)
Corrective measures include air conditioning, sealing
certain components, use of magnetic shields, etc.
Random Errors
Operating errors
Human errors
Instrument errors
Environmental errors
Change in temperature
Change of electromagnetic interference
We must use statistical means to get the best
approximations
Statistical Analysis

=
=
n
i
i
x
n
1
1
x
n
) x - (x
n-
) x - (x
n
d
n
i
i
n
i
i
n
i
i
= = =
= =

=
1
2
1
2
1
2
: n large for
1 1
o o
Arithmetic Mean:
Average Deviation:
Standard Deviation:
x ; x ; x :
/ |) | ... | | | (|
2 2 1 1
2 1
= = =
+ + + =
n n
n
x d x d x d where
n d d d D
Normal Distribution of Errors
0
5
10
15
20
25
9.8V 10V 10.2V
Observation #
The greater the spread of
the distribution, the less the
precision of the
measurement.
The results of the voltage
measurements can be
plotted as frequency
distribution. The largest
number of readings (25)
occurs at 10V. With more
data taken, the histogram
would become a smooth
Gaussian curve.
Confidence Level
With the Gaussian
distribution, the chance
of a measurement
occurring within
standard deviations:
68.3% of the readings
lie within 1o
95.5% of the readings
lie within 2o
99.7% of the readings
lie within 3o
Estimate the Probable Error/Uncertainty
Estimate the Probable Error II
% 100 ) / ( E : error ercent Relative/p
] ) dx
x
f
( [ y : error Probable
| dx
x
f
| y : error Maximum
) x ,..., x , f(x y If
r
2 / 1 2
i
i
rss
i
i
max
n 2 1
A =
c
c
= A
c
c
= A
=

y y
i
i
Extra information, not required
Handling Error
Instrument accuracy: 1%
Reading error: half division
Fluctuation of data (electrical, mechanical,
environmental): repeat measurements and
calculate the mean:




The uncertainty (probable error) can also be
estimated by the maximum difference from the
mean (use the maximum error).
n
e e e e
e
n
2 2
3
2
2
2
1
...+ + + +
=
Tutorial 2
Q: Does instrument bias refer to the
random errors in instruments? How
do you deal with it?
Tutorial 3
Q: Estimate the value of an unknown
metal resistor R of a DC circuit.
Given:
I=1000.010.0(mA)
V=100.0 1.0 (V)
Determine the value of R, its maximum
error and probable error.