Module 2

Foundation of Individual Behaviour

Dr.Yogananthan

Content
Learning Attitudes & values
Job satisfaction

Personality Perception Thinking & Decision making

I. Learning

Contents
Introduction & objectives Components of learning Theories of learning
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Differences Cognitive theory Social learning theory

Principles of reinforcement
Positive Negative Extinction

Punishment Schedules of reinforcement Learning curves

Diminishing returns Increasing returns Increasing decreasing

Learning & behaviour

Objectives
What is learning? Components of learning Determinants of learning Theories of learning Classical conditioning / operant conditioning Cognitive theory Principles of reinforcement Schedule of reinforcements Limitations of behaviour modifications Learning curves

Definitions
Stephen Robbins learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. Steers & porter learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour potentiality that results from reinforced practice or experience.

Components of learning
Learning leads to change good / bad Change must be relatively permanent and if not it cant be considered as a learning Change in behaviour thro experience which also added impact on attitude or process much be considered. If due to diseases it will not be. Some form of learning in necessary for learning and it may be direct or indirect experiences.

Determinants of learning
Motive Stimuli Generalisation Discrimination Responses Reinforcement Retention

Theories of learning
Classical conditioning theory Operant conditioning theory Cognitive learning theory Social learning theory

Classical conditioning
is modifying behaviour so that a conditioned stimulus along with unconditioned stimulus is paired to elicit an unconditioned behaviour. Classical conditioning introduces simple cause effect relationship between one stimuli & response. Russian Psychologist Pavlovs experiment

Unconditional stimulus

Unconditional response

conditional stimulus Response

Unconditional stimulus

conditional stimulus

Conditional response

Pavlovs experiment classical conditioning theory

Limitations
Human beings are more complex than dogs and less amenable to cause effect conditioning Behavioural envt in organisations is also complex The nature of - complexive human decision making process makes it possible to override simple conditioning

Operant conditioning
B.F.Skinner (Harvard psychologist) - in operant conditioning induces a voluntary change in behaviour and learning occur as a consequence of such change and also known as reinforcement theory. Thus behaviour can be controlled by manipulating its consequences. It is built on the following two principles.

 The behaviour that results in positive rewards tend to be repeated and behaviour with negative consequences tend not to be repeated. Based upon such consequences , the behaviour can be predicted and controlled.

 The consequences of behaviour are used to influence or shape thro 3 strategies.

reinforcement Punishment Extinction (Ex -Work hard may bring reward which will bring a positive change in workers behaviour to work hard).

Classical conditioning A change in stimulus elicits a particular response. The strength and frequency of classically conditioned behaviour are mainly by the frequency of eliciting stimulus. Responses are fixed to stimulus

Operant conditioning Stimulus serves as a cue for a person to emit the response The strength and frequency of operant conditioned behaviour are mainly by the consequences. Responses are variable both in type/ degree.

Cognitive theory
Learning is considered as the outcome of deliberate thinking about the problem or situation both intuitively and based upon known facts and responding in an objective and goal oriented manner. It is act of knowing an item of information and this knowledge affects the behaviour of the person so that the information provides cognitive cues towards the expected goals.

Social learning theory

Attention process Retention process Motor reproduction process Reinforcement process

Principles of reinforcement
4 basic reinforcement strategies Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction

Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement schedule Partial reinforcement schedule
Fixed interval schedule Variable interval schedule Fixed ratio schedules Variable ratio schedules

Limitations of behaviour modification

It is an overall structure and ignores individual differences needs, desire, values and abilities. Extrinsic rewards are more valued and intrinsic motivation is ignored and higher levels of needs may not be satisfied. It ignores prevailing work group norms and it is important for the org to know the power of work group norms.

Learning curves
Learning curves
Diminishing returns Increasing returns Increasing decreasing

Increasing decreasing learning curve

Slow learning Increase returns Plateau Peak proficiency Over learning

Learning impacts on behaviour

Reducing absenteeism & Through learning Substituting well pay for sick pay Improving employee discipline Developing training programme

II. ATTITUDES & VALUES

Contents
Meaning of attitude Characteristics of attitudes Functions of attitude Formation of attitudes Values
Types of values Values and behaviour Values & ethics Values & attitudes Difference between attitude & value

Meaning of attitude
is defined as a more of less stable set of predisposition of opinion, interest or propose involving expectancy of a certain kind of experience and a readiness with an appropriate response. They are known as frames of response It is also a cognitive element and remains in person Every body has limited no of attitudes These attitudes are indicative of apathy or enthusiasm.

Characteristic of attitude
It predisposes the evaluation of certain objects in favourable and unfavourable manner. Attitudes are firmly embedded in a complex psychological structure of beliefs Attitudes are different from values as they are narrow, our feelings, thoughts and behavioural tendencies towards objects or situations It is predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts They are evaluative statements

Functions of attitude
It Determines meaning It Reconcile contradictions It organises facts It selects facts

Formation of attitude
Direct experience with the object Classical conditioning and attitudes Operent conditioning and attitudes Vicarious learning Family and peer groups Economic status and occupations

Values
It is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally and socially preferable to the alternative modes of conduct or end states of existence

Types of values
Instrumental value Terminal value Other classifications are
Theoretical Economic Aesthetic Social Political religious

Values and behaviour

Values serves as the foundations for attitudes Individuals hold their own interpretation of right and wrong Values affects both attitude and behaviour Re examining the values pose challenges in modern management

Values and attitudes

Similarities Both are acquired form experience with people, objects, and events Both affects cognitive and behaviour process Both are endurable and difficult to change Both influence each other and used interchangeably

Differences
Attitude
It exhibit predisposition to respond
It refer to several beliefs relating to specific objects or situation They are ones personal experiences

Value
It represent judgmental ideas like what is right
It represent single belief focused on objects and situations They are derived from social and cultural mores.

III. Personality

Personality
Characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting.
Four major perspectives on Personality

Psychoanalytic - unconscious motivations Trait - specific dimensions of personality Humanistic - inner capacity for growth Social-Cognitive - influence of environment

Psychoanalytic Perspective
first comprehensive theory of personality
University of Vienna 1873 Voracious Reader Medical School Graduate

(1856-1939)
Specialized in Nervous Disorders Some patients disorders had no physical cause!

The Unconscious
the mind is like an iceburg - mostly hidden Conscious Awareness small part above surface (Preconscious) Unconscious below the surface (thoughts, feelings, wishes, memories)

Repression

banishing unacceptable thoughts & passions to unconscious Dreams & Slips

Freud & Personality Structure

Id

- energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives Pleasure Principle

Ego

- seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways Reality Principle

Super Ego Super Ego

Ego

Id

- voice of conscience that focuses on how we ought to behave

Freud & Personality Development

personality forms during the first few years of life, rooted in unresolved conflicts of early childhood

Psychosexual Stages

Oral (0-18 mos) - centered on the mouth Anal (18-36 mos) - focus on bowel/bladder elim. Phallic (3-6 yrs) - focus on genitals/Oedipus Complex (Identification & Gender Identity) Latency (6-puberty) - sexuality is dormant Genital (puberty on) - sexual feelings toward others

Strong conflict can fixate an individual at Stages 1,2 or 3

Trait Perspective
No hidden personality dynamics just basic personality dimensions

Traits - peoples characteristic behaviors & conscious motives

How do we describe & classify different personalities? (Type A vs Type B or Depressed vs Cheerful?)

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - classify people based upon responses to 126 questions

Are There Basic Traits?

What trait dimensions describe personality?

Combination of 2 or 3 genetically determined dimensions

Expanded set of factors The Big 5

Extraversion/Introversion Emotional Stability/Instability

The Big Five

Emotional Stability

Calm/Anxious Secure/Insecure Sociable/Retiring Fun Loving/Sober

Extraversion

Openness

Imaginative/Practical Independent/Conforming
Soft-Hearted/Ruthless Trusting/Suspicious Organized/Disorganized Careful/Careless

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Four Dimensions of Personality Type

How we interact with the world and where we direct our energy The kind of information we naturally notice How we make decisions Whether we prefer to live in a more structured way or a more spontaneous way

Extraversion

Introversion
Interest Orientation

Outer world of actions, objects, and people

Inner world of ideas and concepts

Sensing

iNtuition
Perception

Immediate reality and direct experience

Inferred meanings and relationships

Thinking

Feeling
Judgment

Reliability of logical order cause and effect

Priorities based on personal importance and values

Judgment

Perception
Environment Orientation

Judging attitude Control of events and systematic planning

Spontaneity Curious, awaiting events and adapting to them

ISTJ
Take Your Time and Do It Right

ISFJ
On My Honor, to Do My Duty

INFJ
Catalyst for Positive Change

INTJ
Competence + Independence = Perfection

ISTP
Doing the Best I Can With What Ive Got

ISFP
Its the Thought That Counts

INFP
Still Waters Run Deep

INTP
Ingenious Problem Solvers

ESTP
Lets Get Busy!

ESFP
Dont Worry, Be Happy

ENFP
Anythings Possible

ENTP
Lifes Entrepreneurs

ESTJ

ESFJ

ENFJ
The Public Relations Specialist

ENTJ
Everythings Fine Im in Charge

Taking Care of What Can I Do Business For You?

The Humanistic Perspective

Maslows Self-Actualizing Person Rogers Person-Centered Perspective

Healthy rather than Sick Individual as greater than the sum of test scores

Maslow & Self-Actualization

Self-Actualization
the process of fufilling our potential Studied healthy, creative people Abe Lincoln, Tom Jefferson & Eleanor Roosevelt Self-Aware & Self-Accepting Open & Spontaneous Loving & Caring Problem-Centered not Self-Centered

Esteem

Love Needs
Safety

Physiological

Rogers Person-Centered Perspective

People are basically good with actualizing tendencies.

Given the right environmental conditions, we will develop to our full potentials

Genuineness, Acceptance, Empathy

Self Concept - central feature of personality (+ or -)

Assessing & Evaluating the Self

? ?
X

Primarily through questionnaires in which people report their self-concept.

Also by understanding others subjective personal experiences during therapy

Concepts are vague & subjective. Assumptions are navely optimistic.

Personal Control
Internal Locus of Control You pretty much control your own destiny

External Locus of Control Luck, fate and/or powerful others control your destiny

Methods of Study Correlate feelings of control with behavior Experiment by raising/lowering peoples sense of control and noting effects

IV. Perception

Contents
Introduction Factors influencing perceptual process Perceptual grouping Stimuli selection Barriers to perceptual accuracy Honing perceptual skills

Introduction
The process of receiving stimuli the organising process The process of selecting stimuli The process of interpreting The process of checking The process of reacting

Factors influencing the perceptual process

The characteristics of perceiver The characteristics of perceived The characteristics of situation

Perception (overall understanding of perception)

The characteristics of perceiver

Needs and motives Self concept Our ethics Past experience Current emotional state

The characteristics of perceived

Physical characteristics perceived are
Appearance Body language Facial expressions Age Gender Manner of communication

Perceptual grouping
Continuity Closure Proximity Similarity

Perceptual selectivity
It is believed that our senses are activated only by certain type of stimuli so that some stimuli may go unnoticed if these are not strong bright or loud enough to activate our senses If relates to our ability to turn out certain stimuli to which we have been consciously exposed is known as sensory adaptation

Stimuli selection
External factors Size Intensity Contrast Repetition Movement Novelty and familarity order Internal factors Learning and perception motivation & perception

Barriers to perceptual accuracy

Stereo typing
Sex role stereotypes Age stereotypes

Halo effect Expectancy Perceptual defense Projection

Honing perceptual skills

Knowing and perceiving oneself accurately
It is removing blind spots Like how we perceive others thro knowing, perceiving and understanding Obtain information from superiors, peers, subordinates and other colleagues JOHARI window

Being emphatic Having positive attitudes Enhance good self image Avoiding common biases in perception Avoiding attributions

JOHARI window
The public area what is known us and others is the public area The blind area I am blind to the fact that I come across to others in a negative way The private & secret area I know something myself, which nobody else is aware and I would like to keep it, undisclosed, a secret. The unknown area & dark area there may be aspect of me which I am unaware of and others do not know either.

Public area Open self

Blind area Blind self

Private area Open self

Dark area Undiscovered self

Reference
Stephen Robbins, text book of OB, 7th edition. Ashwathappa, text book of OB, 3rd edition. Ren Stinson, University of Iowa,web based MBTI article. Jacqueline N. Hood, Understanding management styles, Anderson School of Management, University of New Mexico. Marcia Bench, MBTI assessment & career coaching, MCCC. Fisher ,Schoefeldt & Shaw, text book of Human resource management, 6th edn, chapter 11. Management, 40130, motivation theories, web based article. Job satisfaction, www.owlnet.rice.edu/.../psyc_231_ch09_job%20satisfaction.ppt Job evaluation,www.businessfaculty.utoledo.edu/ddwyer/HURM4650/.../jobeval.p pt