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5
GOALS OF THIS CHAPTER
- introduce further the matrix determinant - calculate determinants using the weave method - calculate determinants using cofactor expansions - calculate determinants using elementary row operations - see properties of the matrix determinant - application to geometry: areas of parallelograms and triangles - application to linear systems: solving systems using Cramers Rule
It turns out that there is a special number associated to a square matrix that tells us if that matrix is invertible!
We call this special number the determinant of the matrix A, or write it as det(A).
a
A=
b d
det(A) = ad - bc
a
A=
b d
R1
R1 / a
1
A=
b/a d
R2 R2 c*R1
1
A=
b/a d (bc)/a
1
A=
b/a d (bc)/a
So, in order for A to be an identity matrix, we would need the number d (bc)/a to not be zero:
d (bc)/a 0 ad bc 0 det(A)
IF det(A) = 0, THEN THE MATRIX A IS NOT INVERTIBLE. IF det(A) 0, THEN THE MATRIX A IS INVERTIBLE.
a
A= -
b d
+
Down and to the right, we add. Down and to the left, we subtract.
det(A) = + ad - bc
a
A=
b e h
-
c f i
a d g
+
b e h
+ +
d g
-
To make it work, you have to add the first two columns of the matrix on the right side.
Down and to the right, we add. Down and to the left, we subtract.
1
A=
0 2
-
3 1
1 2 5
+
0 -8 2
+ +
REMARK: Since the determinant is not zero, it would be possible to find the inverse of this matrix.
2 5
-
-8 7
det(A) = 1*(-8)*1 + 0*7*5 + 3*2*2 - 3*(-8)*5 - 1*7*2 - 0*2*1 det(A) = -8 + 0 + 12 + 120 - 14 - 0 det(A) = 110
COFACTOR EXPANSION
How do we deal with determinants of higher order matrices? Wouldnt it be nice if we could write these formulas in a simpler way?
To answer these questions, we will use the cofactors of matrix entries. Recall that the cofactor of a matrix entry a(i,j) is defined to be:
Aij = (-1)i+jdet(Mij)
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Lets revisit the 2x2 determinant:
a11 a12
A= -
a21 a22
+
Lets try to rewrite this in terms of cofactors.
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Lets revisit the 2x2 determinant:
a11 a12
A= a 21 a22 det(A) = a11a22 a12a21 det(A) = a11*det(M11) a12a21
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Lets revisit the 2x2 determinant:
a11 a12
A= a 21 a22 det(A) = a11a22 a12a21
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Lets revisit the 2x2 determinant:
a11 a12
A= a 21 a22 det(A) = a11a22 a12a21 det(A) = a11*det(M11) a12*det(M12) det(A) = a11*A11 + a12*A12
Finally, we get rid of the negative signs by using the cofactor. This is why the cofactor has a (-1) in the formula!
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Lets revisit the 2x2 determinant:
a11 a12
A= a 21 a22 det(A) = a11*A11 + a12*A12
We call this a cofactor expansion along the first row. Pretend you are drawing an arrow and whatever entry you hit, multiply that entry by its corresponding cofactor.
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Next, we will show that a cofactor expansion along the first row of a 3x3 matrix gives the 3x3 weave formula. Ex. 5 The 3x3 Cofactor Expansion
a
A=
b e h
c f i
d g
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Ex. 5 The 3x3 Cofactor Expansion
a
A=
b e h
c f i
d g
det(A) = a*A11 + b*A12 + c*A13 det(A) = a(-1)2det(M11) + b(-1)3det(M12) + c(-1)4det(M13) det(A) = a*det(M11) b*det(M12) + c*det(M13) det(A) = a(ei - fh) b*det(M12) + c*det(M13)
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Ex. 5 The 3x3 Cofactor Expansion
a
A=
b e h
c f i
d g
det(A) = a*A11 + b*A12 + c*A13 det(A) = a(-1)2det(M11) + b(-1)3det(M12) + c(-1)4det(M13) det(A) = a*det(M11) b*det(M12) + c*det(M13) det(A) = a(ei - fh) b(di - fg) + c*det(M13)
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Ex. 5 The 3x3 Cofactor Expansion
a
A=
b e h
c f i
d g
det(A) = a*A11 + b*A12 + c*A13 det(A) = a(-1)2det(M11) + b(-1)3det(M12) + c(-1)4det(M13) det(A) = a*det(M11) b*det(M12) + c*det(M13) det(A) = a(ei - fh) b(di - fg) + c(dh - eg)
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Ex. 5 The 3x3 Cofactor Expansion
a
A=
b e h
c f i
d g
det(A) = a*A11 + b*A12 + c*A13 det(A) = a(-1)2det(M11) + b(-1)3det(M12) + c(-1)4det(M13) det(A) = a*det(M11) b*det(M12) + c*det(M13) det(A) = a(ei - fh) b(di - fg) + c(dh - eg) det(A) = aei - afh - bdi + bfg + cdh - ceg
This is the formula we saw before!
COFACTOR EXPANSION
So this gives us a way to find determinants of 4x4 or higher matrices! We expand using cofactors (since we cant use the weave formula). Before I give some examples, I will state a theorem that might save you some time. Thm. 6 If A is a square matrix, then det(A) can be expressed as a cofactor expansion along any row or any column of the matrix.
In the next few examples, we will see just how awesome this theorem is.
COFACTOR EXPANSION
Ex. 7 Illustration of Thm. 6 - done in class
TYPE I multiplying a row by a non-zero number TYPE II adding a multiple of one row to another TYPE III switching two rows
What we will do next is to calculate the determinants of these types of elementary matrices, so we can see how elementary row operations affect determinant calculations.
1 E1 = 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 2
So the determinant of a Type I elementary matrix is equal to the non-zero number you use!
det(E1) = 2
1 E2 = 0 0
0 1 0
-3 0 1
det(E2) = 1
1 E3 = 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
det(E3) = -1
det(EA) det(E)
= det(A)
This means if we want to use an elementary row operation on A to make our determinant calculation easier, we can balance this action by dividing by the determinant of our elementary matrix.
(x2,y2) (x1,y1)
(x3,y3)
To calculate the area, we will calculate the area of three rectangles and three triangles.
(x3,y3)
The area of the first rectangle can be calculated by: l*w = (x2 - x1)y1
(x3,y3)
The area of the first triangle can be calculated by: b*h/2 = (x2 - x1)(y2 - y1)*1/2
(x3,y3)
The total area of this shape is: l*w + b*h/2 = (x2 - x1)y1 + (x2 - x1)(y2 - y1)*1/2
(x3,y3)
The area of the second rectangle can be calculated by: l*w = (x3 x2)y3
(x3,y3)
The area of the second triangle can be calculated by: b*h/2 = (x3 x2)(y2 - y3)*1/2
(x3,y3)
(x3,y3)
The area of the final rectangle can be calculated by: l*w = (x3 x1)y3
(x3,y3)
The area of the final triangle can be calculated by: b*h/2 = (x3 x1)(y1 - y3)*1/2
(x3,y3)
(x2,y2) (x1,y1)
(x3,y3)
[(x2 - x1)y1 + (x2 - x1)(y2 - y1)*1/2] + [(x3 x2)y3 + (x3 x2)(y2 - y3)*1/2] - [(x3 - x1)y3 + (x3 x1)(y1 - y3)*1/2]
x1 y1 1
det
x2 y2 1 x3 y3 1
x1 y1 1
Area of triangle = det
x2 y2 1 x3 y3 1
x1 y1 1
Area of parallelogram = det
x2 y2 1 x3 y3 1
CRAMERS RULE
We can use determinants to solve equally determined linear systems in a much quicker way that using GaussJordan elimination. The next method we see is called Cramers Rule. Thm. 14 Let A be an nxn square matrix that is non-singular. Let b be an nx1 column matrix. Let Ai be the matrix obtained by replacing the ith column of A with b. If x is the unique solution of Ax=b, then xi = det(Ai) det(A) , as i ranges from 1 to n.
CRAMERS RULE
Proof: Since A is non-singular, we know the inverse of A exists. We can use it to solve the linear system: Ax = b x = A-1b
x = (1/det(A) * adj(A))b
CRAMERS RULE
Write the formula using general matrices: x = (1/det(A) * adj(A))b
x1 x2 xn
= 1 det(A)
b1 b2 bn
CRAMERS RULE
Lets calculate one of the entries in x:
x1 x2 xn
= 1 det(A)
b1 b2 bn
CRAMERS RULE
This works for all the other entries in the x-vector, so we have proved that Cramers Rule works.