Measurement, Concentration and

Density

How much stuff is there?

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 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
 All data and results must have units of
measurement to be valid and serve as a
basis of comparison
 Units define the basic quantity of what is
being measured

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UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
English System Metric System
Collection of unrelated Set of units related to
units each other by powers
Mass in pounds of ten
Length in yards Mass in grams
Volume in gallons Length in meters
Volume in liters

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 METRIC SYSTEM
Prefix Symbol Factor
mega- M 106
kilo- k 103
BASE UNIT --- 100
deci- d 10-1
centi- c 10-2
milli- m 10-3
micro- µ 10-6
nano- n 10-9
pico- p 10-12 4
 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Also known as exponential notation

Expresses very large or very small numbers
using powers of ten

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 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 Large numbers
– Move decimal point to the left
– Represent number of places as power of ten

65,000 kg → 6.5 × 104 kg

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 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 Small numbers
– Move decimal point to the right and show
number of places as negative power of ten

0.0024 kg → 2.4 × 10-3 kg

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 CONVERSION FACTORS
Dimensional analysis
– Convert from one unit to another within the
same system
– Convert units from one system to another

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Conversion Factors for Mass
1 gram (g) = 10-3 kilograms (kg)

= 103 milligrams (mg)

= 106 micrograms (μg)

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 Volume

Conversion Factors:

1 liter (L) = 103 milliliters ( mL)

1 liter
103 ml
1 mL = 1 cm3 = 1 cc

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 Example
 How many milliliters are there in a gallon?
 1 gallon = 3.79 liters
 1 liter = 103 milliliters

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Temperature Scales

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Temperature Conversion Factors

From Fahrenheit to Celsius:

°C = °F – 32 or 5(oF - 32)
1.8 9

From Celsius to Fahrenheit:

°F = 1.8 °C + 32 or 9oC + 32
5

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Temperature Conversion Factors
 From Celsius to Kelvin:
K = °C + 273

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 Solutions
Definition
A homogeneous or uniform mixture of two or
more substances
 Composed of

– Solvent

– Solute

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 Solute
A compound in a solution that is present in
lesser quantity than the solvent
 When sugar is added to water, the sugar
dissolves in water to make a solution
– Sugar = solute
– Water = solvent

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 Solvent
 The component present in largest quantity
 When water is the solvent, the homogenous
mixture solution is referred as aqueous
– Latin aqua = water

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Properties of Liquid Solutions
 Homogenous mixture with uniform
properties throughout
 Thesolute cannot be isolated from the
solvent
 The
particle size of the solute is about the
same as that of the solvent

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Properties of Liquid Solutions
 Allof the molecules of the solute and
solvent are intimately mixed
 The continuous particle motion in solution
maintains the homogenous, random
distribution of the solute and solvent
particles

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Properties of Liquid Solutions
 Volumes of solute and solvent are not
additive
– Adding 1 L of alcohol and 1 L of water does
not equal exactly 2 L of solution.
 The volume of pure liquid is determined by
the way in which the individual molecules
fit together

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Properties of Liquid Solutions
 When two or more kinds of molecules are
mixed together, the molecular interactions
become more complex:
solvent interacts with solvent
solute interacts with solvent
solute may interact with another solute

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Properties of Liquid Solutions
 Clear and transparent with no visible
particles
 Colored or colorless depending on the
properties of the solute
 NOTE: clear & colorless do not mean the
same thing
– Clear = not cloudy
– Colorless = absence of color

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Properties of Liquid Solutions
 Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents
 Non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar
solvents
 The degree of solubility depends on the
difference between the polarity of the solute
and solvent and the temperature

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Properties of Liquid Solutions
 Redox Potential
 Solution’s ability to accept or donate
electrons
 Reducing agents – substances that donate
electrons
 Oxidizing agents – substances that accept
electrons

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Properties of Liquid Solutions
 Conductivity
– Ability of a solution to pass an electrical
current due to the respective charges of the ions
present
 Resistivity
– Ability of a solution to resist an electrical
current
– Resistivity of water is a measure of its purity

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Properties of Liquid Solutions
 Electrolytesare formed from solutes that
are ionic compounds
 Ions behave as charge carriers
– sodium chloride in water
NaCl (s) + H2O  Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

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Properties of Liquid Solutions
 Non-electrolytes – formed from
nondissociating molecular solutes
 Their solutions do not carry charge
– Glucose in water
C6H12O6 (s) + H2O  C6H12O6 (aq)
Solid Dissolved
Glucose Glucose
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 Colligative Properties
 Concentration-dependent solution
properties
 Four types:
 Vapor Pressure
 Boiling Point

 Freezing Point

 Osmotic Pressure

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 Vapor Pressure
 Result of the escape of solvent molecules from the
liquid to the gas phase
 Increases the amount (partial pressure) of the gas
phase solvent molecules above the liquid
 Ifa closed system will reach equilibrium vapor
pressure

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 Vapor Pressure
 Presence of solute molecules hinders the
escape of solvent molecules, thus lowering
the equilibrium vapor pressure

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 Freezing Point
 Adding solute to solvent lowers the freezing
point of the liquid
 Directlyproportional to the solute
concentration
 Freezing point depression

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 Freezing Point
 Salt is spread on roads to melt ice in winter
 Solutes such as antifreeze are added to car
radiators in the winter
 BUT! What else does “antifreeze” do?

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 Boiling Point
 Raises (elevates) the boiling point
 Definition - the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of a liquid equals the atmospheric
pressure
 More solute increases the temperature at which the
vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pressure
 Directly proportional to solute concentration.

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 Saturated Solution
 Solution which contains all the solute that can be
dissolved at a particular temperature
 Increasing the temperature increases the amount of
solute a given solution can hold
 Lowering temperature decreases solubility (of
most solutes)
 Excess solute falls to the bottom of the container
as a precipitate (a solid in contact with the
solution)

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 Supersaturated Solution
 Excess solute may remain in solution for a
time before precipitation
 Inherently unstable
 With time excess solute will precipitate and
the solution will revert to a saturated
solution

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 Measurement of Concentration
 Concentration - the number of particles of a
substance or the mass of those particles
contained in a specified volume
 Examples:
– The proper amount of salt or glucose in a given
volume of IV solution
– The amount of an illegal drug in a certain
volume of blood  drug abuse, overdoses
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Expressions of Concentration
 Percentage: w/w%, w/v%, v/v%
 Molality

 Molarity

 Normality

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 Percentage
 Weight/Volume Percent (w/v%)
W % = grams of solute X 100 %
V total milliliters of solution
 Weight/Weight Percent (w/w%)

W % = grams of solute X 100 %

W total grams of solution

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 Percentage
 Volume/VolumePercent (v/v%)
V % = milliliters of solute X 100 %
V total milliliters of solution

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 Molality (m)
 Do not confuse with molarity
 Formula:

m = moles of solute
kg of solvent
 Units: moles per kg

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 Molarity (M)
 Formula:

M = moles of solute
liters of solution
 Units: moles per liter (mol/L); millimoles
per liter (mmol/L); micromoles per liter
(μmol/L)

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 Normality (N)
 Frequently used for acids and bases
 A function of number of H+ per mole of
acid or OH- per mole of base
 Formula:
 N = (Molarity) the number of H+ or OH-
mole
 Units: normal = N

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 Normality (N)
 What is the normality of 1 M HCl?
– One H+ is generated per mole so 1 M HCl is also 1 N
HCl
 What is the normality of 1 M H2SO4?
– Two H+ are generated per mole so 1 M H2SO4 is 2 N
H2SO4
 What is the normality of 2 M NaOH?
– One OH- is generated per mole so 2 M NaOH is 2 N
NaOH
 Can be used for other ions like Ca+2, PO4-3 etc
based on number of ions per mole and their charge
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 Diffusion
 Movement of solute from an area of high
concentration to an area of low
concentration

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 Osmosis
 Movement of solvent from a dilute solution
to a more concentrated solution through a
semi-permeable membrane
 Semi-permeable membrane allows the
solvent, but not the solute, to move from
one side of the membrane to the other

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 Na + Na+

Na + Cl-
Cl-
Na+

Cl-
Cl-
Semipermeable
membrane

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 Osmotic Pressure
 The pressure required to stop the flow from
a dilute solution to a concentrated solution
 At equilibrium, the osmotic pressure equals
zero
 Can be calculated from the solution
concentration at any temperature.

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 Osmolarity of Solution
 Begin with molarity of the particles in
solution
 Calculate osmotic pressure
 Osmol = (particles per molecule) (Molarity)
 Compare solutions to predict direction of
fluid flow across a membrane

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 Comparing Osmolarity
 If osmolarity of two solutions on opposite
sides of a membrane is the same they are
called isosmotic
 A solution with higher osmolarity than
another is said to be hypertonic
 If lower - hypotonic

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Membrane, What Membrane?
 Classic example is a red blood cell (RBC)

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 RBC in Hypertonic Solution
 Ifosmolarity of the fluid surrounding the
RBC is higher than that inside the cell,
water flows out of the cell causing it to
collapse or crenate

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RBC in Hypertonic Solution

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 RBC in Hypotonic Solution
 Ifosmolarity of the fluid surrounding the
RBC is lower than that within the cell,
water will flow into the cell, causing the
cell to rupture or hemolyze

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RBC in Hypotonic Solution

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 RBC in Isotonic Solution
 Same osmolarity inside and out
 Result - no fluid movement occurs

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RBC in Isotonic Solution

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 Dialysis
 Method of treating patients in kidney failure
 Takes advantage of process of diffusion
 Blood is passed through tubing made of
semipermeable membrane immersed in fluid
– Waste products such as urea will diffuse through
dialysis membrane
 Must account for osmosis
 Desired molecules like glucose will also diffuse
– How can they be kept in the blood?

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 Dilutions
 Calculate the amount of solvent needed to
reduce a concentrated solution to a lower
concentration
 Formula:
C1V1 = C2V2
C1 = concentration of solution before dilution
V1 = volume of solution before dilution
C2 = concentration of solution after dilution
V2 = volume of solution after dilution
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 Calculating Dilutions
 What is the final concentration if 25 ml of
0.65 M NaOH is diluted to 90 ml?
 C1 = 0.65M, V1= 25 ml, V2= 90 ml, C2 = ?

 C2 = C1V1/V2
 C2 = (0.65M) (25ml) / 90ml
 C2 = 0.18 M NaOH

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 Calculating Dilutions
 How much 0.8 M NaOH is required to
make a 60 ml of a 0.2 M NaOH solution?
 C1 = 0.8M, C2= 0.2M, V2 = 60 ml, V1 = ?

 V1 = C2V2 / C1
 V1 = (0.2M) (60ml) / 0.8M
 V1 = 15 ml of 0.8 M NaOH

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 Density

 Useful way to characterize a substance

 Intensive property independent of the
amount of material
 What is the densest element?

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 Density
 The ratio of mass (in grams) to volume (in mL,
cm3 or cc):

M
D=
V
 Units: grams per mL, grams per cm3, grams per cc

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 Specific Gravity
 The ratio of the density of one object to the
density of pure water at 4 °C
specific = density of object (g/mL)
gravity density of water (g/ml)

= density of object (g/mL)

1g/mL
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 Specific Gravity
 Itis a unitless term
 Use in routine hospital tests such as urine
specific gravity
 Provides rapid information on kidney
function

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 Other Types of Mixtures
 Suspension
– Insoluble material dispersed in liquid
– Heterogeneous and not clear
– Will settle out
– Preparations of penicillin for injection
– Mist from a nebulizer
– Blood

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 Other Types of Mixtures
 Colloid
– Small particles in a liquid
– Will not settle out so can be considered a
permanent suspension
– Milk

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