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Cellular Systems:
An Introduction
by: Reynold Cheng
This lecture is based on the lecture slides of Prof. Victor Leung (with his permission), the textbook “W.
Stallings, Wireless Communications and Networks, Prentice Hall, 2001” and the slides (prepared by
Tom Fronckowiak) and figures provided at the Web site of the textbook.
Lesson Objectives
Cellular Network Topology
Power Control
Making a Mobile Call
Traffic Modeling
Multiple Call Access Protocols
Handoff Management
Location Database Management
2
Cellular System Overview
Cell A
Mobile
station
Cell B
Cell C
Mobile
station3
Elements of Cellular Systems
Base Station (BS) – includes antenna(s) and a controller
Cell – area covered by a BS
Mobile station (MS) – subscriber terminals communicating
with BS by wireless means (mobile terminal)
Mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO) –
connects calls between mobile units and the public
switched telephone network (PSTN)
Two types of channels available between MS and BS:
Control channels – used to exchange information
having to do with setting up and maintaining calls
Traffic channels – carry voice or data connection
between users
4
First Generation (1G) Analog
Cellular Systems
Type AMPS ETACS NTT
Region America Europe Japan
Forward band 869 - 894 MHz 935 – 960 MHz 870 – 885 MHz
Reverse band 824 – 849 MHz 890 – 915 MHz 925 – 940 MHz
Frequency reuse factor N = no. of distinct channel groups = maximum cluster size
8
1G System Capacity Evaluation
Frequency reuse factor N = no. of distinct channel
groups = maximum cluster size
Let
W = available spectrum
B = bandwidth needed per voice connection
M = number of cells covering service area
System capacity in terms of number of simultaneous
connections (users) is given by
W M
n = ( )( )
B N
System capacity can be increased by reducing B, N or
increasing W, M
9
Frequency Reuse Example 2
Suppose W = 25 MHz and B = 25 KHz/voice channel
W/B = 1000 voice channels can be supported over the
spectrum
Scenario 1: a high power base station covering entire area
(M = N = 1) ⇒ system capacity n = 1000 users
Scenario 2:
Coverage area divided into M = 20 cells with reuse factor N = 4
Each cluster accommodate 1000 active users
5 clusters in coverage area ⇒ system capacity n = 5000 users
Scenario 3:
M = 100 cells, N = 4 ⇒ system capacity n = 25000 users
Scenario 4:
M = 100 cells, N = 1 ⇒ system capacity n = 100000 users
10
Cellular Geometries
11
Cellular Topology
Cell coverage depends on transmit power and antenna
elevation ⇒ highly irregular in practice
For planning and evaluations purposes, it is common to
assume regularly spaced hexagonal cells with BS located
at the centre of each cell ⇒ equidistance between BSs
Define R = cell radius, d = distance between adjacent BSs
= R√3, D = minimum distance between co-channel cells
(those using the same frequency group)
N = (D/d)2
For integer N , N = i2 + j2 + ij, i, j = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
Possible values of N: 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, …
12
Examples of Hexagonal Cellular
Topology
13
Approaches to Increase Capacity
Adding new channel – any available channels can be added
Frequency borrowing – frequencies are borrowed from adjacent cells by
congested cells (or assign frequencies to cells dynamically)
Cell splitting – cells in areas of high usage are split into smaller ones
Cell sectoring – cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each
with their own set of channels
Microcells – decrease the cell size by moving antennas lower places (e.g. lamp
posts)
useful in congested streets, inside public buildings, etc.
14
Examples
A system of 32 cells with a radius r of
1.6km
A total of 336 frequencies
N=7
Area covered = 32 × 1.5r 3 = 213km
2 2
No. of channels per cell = 336/7 = 48
Total concurrent calls = 48×32 =1536
How about a system of 128 cells with r =
0.8km? (classwork)
Area = 128 × 1.5(0.8) 3 = 213km
2 2
15
Second Generation (2G) Digital
Cellular Systems
Type IS-54 IS-95 GSM PDC
Region America America Europe Japan
Forward Band 869 - 894 MHz 869 - 894 MHz 935 – 960 MHz 810 – 826 MHz
Reverse Band 824 – 849 MHz 824 – 849 MHz 890 – 915 MHz 940 – 956 MHz
Users/channel 3 Up to 55 8 3
16
Differences Between 1G and 2G
Cellular Systems
Traffic channels – 1G systems use analog FM
modulation; 2G systems use low bit-rate voice
coding and digital transmission
Encryption – all 2G systems provide encryption to
prevent eavesdropping
Error detection and correction – 2G digital traffic
channels incorporate FEC for error detection and
correction, giving higher power and bandwidth
efficiency
Channel access – 2G systems allow each
frequency channel to be shared by a number of
users, using TDMA or CDMA techniques 17
Lesson Objectives
Cellular Network Topology
Power Control
Making a Mobile Call
Traffic Modeling
Multiple Call Access Protocols
Handoff Management
Location Database Management
18
Power Control
Design issues making it desirable to include dynamic
power control in a cellular system
Received power must be sufficiently above the background
noise for effective communication
Desirable to minimize power in the transmitted signal from
the mobile
Reduce co-channel interference, alleviate health concerns, save
battery power
In SS systems using CDMA, it’s desirable to equalize the
received power level from all mobile units at the BS
19
Open-Loop Periodic pilot
20
Closed-Loop Power
Control
22
Anatomy of a Mobile Call –
Outgoing Call
23
Anatomy of a Mobile Call –
Incoming Call
26
Traffic Engineering
Based on expected level of traffic, determine number of
traffic channels needed in a cell to meet quality of service
(grade of service) objectives:
Call blocking probability PB
Call dropping probability PD
Assume Poisson arrivals for new calls with rate λn and
handoff calls with rate λh in a given cell
Assume negative exponentially distributed channel
holding time with mean value τ for MS in the given cell
Traffic intensity in cell is ρ = (λn + λh) τ (Erlangs)
Given S traffic channels and no distinction of new and
handoff calls, B = PB = PD given by Erlang B formula for
blocked calls cleared service discipline 27
Erlang B Function
Blocking/dropping
probability
ρ S / S!
B=
∑ k = 0 / k!)
S
0.002 ( ρ k
29
Comments
A system with more channels is more efficient than one
with fewer.
E.g. with P = 0.002
Two cells, each with 10 channels, can handle a total of 6.86
erlangs (i.e., 3.43+3.43)
One cell with 20 channels can handle 10.07 erlangs
A system with more channels is more susceptible to
reduction of P
For S = 10, 30% increase in traffic reduces the grade of
service from 0.002 to 0.01
For S = 70, 10% increase in traffic would reduce the grade of
service from 0.002 to 0.01
30
Cellular Call Admission Problem
Dropping of an ongoing call is usually considered much
more objectionable than blocking of a new call
It is desirable to give handoff calls a better service than
new calls; e.g., PB = 0.1 and PD = 0.01
Approaches:
Guard channels for handoff calls – L guard channels
mean that a new call is blocked if L channels or less are
free while a handoff call is blocked if no channel is free
Use a different service discipline, e.g., blocked calls
cleared for new calls and blocked calls queued for
handoff calls
31
Lesson Objectives
Cellular Network Topology
Power Control
Making a Mobile Call
Traffic Modeling
Multiple Call Access Protocols
Handoff Management
Location Database Management
32
Type of Multiple Access
Orthogonal multiple access
Different transmitters do not interfere with each other
Simultaneous conversations between many transmitter-receiver
pairs
Multiple access with contentions
Signals from multiple transmitters may overlap and interfere with
each others, and may contend for a common receiver ⇒ collision
Multiple access protocol needed to arbitrate access and minimize
or recover from collisions
Two models:
Collision prevents successful reception at (any) receiver due to
destructive interference
Capture effect - one of several contending signals is captured by the
receiver, based on power differential, time of arrival, random
decision
33
Orthogonal Multiple Access
Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
Frequency band divided into non-overlapping frequency
channels, each assigned to one transmitter / receiver pair
Time division multiple access (TDMA)
Entire frequency band used for one frequency channel, divided
into non-overlapping and repetitive time segments, each assigned
to one transmitter / receiver pair
Code division multiple access (CDMA)
Entire frequency band used for one frequency channel
Different transmitter / receiver pairs share the channel by spread-
spectrum communications using different codes
Hybrid techniques
TDMA/FDMA
CDMA/FDMA
34
Duplexing Methods
Duplexing refers to the way in which forward and reverse
communication channels are derived for two-way
communications, usually in a centralized network
Frequency division duplexing (FDD)
Forward and reverse channels obtained from different frequency
bands
Characteristics of forward and reverse channel may be different
Can be used with any accessing technique, e.g., FDD/FDMA,
FDD/TDMA, FDD/CDMA
Widely use in cellular systems
Time division duplexing (TDD)
Forward and reverse channels take turn to use the same frequency
band (ping-pong method)
Forward and reverse channels have same characteristics
35
Multiple Access Protocols
Packet-based and allow statistical multiplexing
Contention-based protocols
Random access – terminals access channel at will
Carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA) – terminals access
channel only if the channel is sensed idle
Collisions recovered by
Random retransmissions; e.g., binary exponential backoff
Collision resolution techniques
Reservation protocols
Reservation phase for terminals to send request or exchange
state information
Data transmitted in an orthogonal channel without
interference from other terminals
36
Pure Aloha Protocol
The grandmother of all random access protocols
Stations access channel at will and recover collisions
Assume stations send data frames of constant length F
Each frame has a vulnerable period of 2F about its start
time when start of frame transmissions by other stations
cause a collision with this frame
Assume Poisson arrival and Poisson channel traffic (new
arrivals plus retransmissions) with normalized rate G,
then normalized channel throughput
S = Ge-2G
Maximum throughput S = 1/(2e) = 18.4% at G = 0.5
Unstable in the long run for infinite station population
37
Slotted Aloha Protocol
Channel time divided into slots of length F
Stations access channel at beginning of slots
Frame transmission occupies entire slot
Frame wiped out by collision if one or more other stations
also access the same slot, recovered by delaying
retransmission by a randomly chosen number of slots
Assume Poisson arrival and Poisson channel traffic (new
arrivals plus retransmissions) with normalized rate G, then
normalized channel throughput
S = Ge-G
Maximum throughput S = 1/e = 36.8% at G = 1
Unstable in the long run for infinite station population
38
Carrier Sensed Multiple Access
In wireless networks where packet transmission time is
long relative to propagation delay, channel state (i.e., idle
or busy) information is available to terminals
Terminals should transmit only if channel is sensed idle
⇒ carrier sensed multiple access (CSMA)
Persistency of CSMA protocols dictates action taken
when channel sensed busy
1-persistent – station keep sensing channel and transmit right
away when channel becomes idle
p-persistent – keep sensing with probability p, defer to some
later time (backoff) with probability 1 - p
Non-persistent – station backlogged and access process deferred
(backoff) to some later time
39
Lesson Objectives
Cellular Network Topology
Power Control
Making a Mobile Call
Traffic Modeling
Multiple Call Access Protocols
Handoff Management
Location Database Management
40
Mobility Management Functions
Mobility management necessitated by mobility of
users/MSs over areas covered by different radio cells
Handoff management – maintenance of a connection
through a cellular network during a call
Also referred to as handover
Handoff decision process
Dissociation/Re-association process
Location management – ability to identify the cell in
which a MS is located, for call delivery to the user
Location update process
Paging process
Roaming
41
Basic Steps of Handoff Procedure
(2) Dissociation/Re-
association
42
Elements of Handoff Procedure
Handoff control – where is the handoff decision made and
the handoff operation controlled?
Handoff decision algorithm – conditions that trigger the
decision to initiate handoff process
Dissociation – MS is dissociated with old BS; traffic channel
assigned to MS in old BS is released
Re-association – MS is associated with new BS; traffic
channel assigned to MS in new BS to support ongoing call
Channel allocation algorithms – priority treatment of re-
association for handoff calls?
Call rerouting – needed if old and new BSs served by
different MSC or MTSO
Performance metrics – handoff call blocking (dropping)
probability, handoff delay
43
Handoff Decision Algorithms
Traditional algorithms based on received signal
strength (RSS) or received signal power P at current
and adjacent cells.
The BS averages the signal over a moving window
of time to remove rapid flucutations:
RSS: initiate handoff to BSnew if Pnew > Pold
44
The Hysteresis Mechanism
46
Examples of Handoff Decision
Algorithms
47
Types of Handoff Control
Network Controlled Handoff (NCHO)
Handoff is initiated by the network, i.e., MSC, BSC, etc.
Network entity makes RSS measurements at MS’s current BS and
adjacent BSs
e.g., AMPS
Mobile Controlled Handoff (MCHO)
Handoff is initiated by MS based on its measurement of RSS from
current and adjacent BSs
e.g., 802.11 WLAN
Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
MS measures RSS from current and adjacent BSs and reports results
to network
Network entity make handoff decision based on these measurements
e.g., GSM, IS-95
48
Types of Handoff Procedures
Hard handoff
MS dissociates with old BS before re-associating with new BS; i.e.,
“break before make”
Momentary call disruption during handoff
e.g., AMPS
Seamless handoff
MS associates with new BS before dissociating with old BS, i.e.,
“make before break”
Enables MS to instantaneously switch from old to new connection
without call disruption
Soft handoff
MS is simultaneously associated with multiple BSs with active traffic
channels during soft handoff
Facilitate diversity combining of signals
e.g., IS-95
Reference: http://home.san.rr.com/denbeste/soft.html
49
Impact of Handoff on Network
Infrastructure
Intra-BSS handoff
Handoff between different channels in the same cell, e.g., due to
excessive interference in the original traffic channel
Handoff between different sectors or zones in the same cell
MSC is not involved if BSS has processing capability as in GSM
Intra-MSC handoff
Handoff between cells connected to the same MSC via different BSSs
Dissociation/Re-association involves traffic channels not only over air
interface, but also over links between MSC and BSSs, all under
coordination of the MSC
Inter-MSC handoff
Handoff between cells connected to different MSCs
Dissociation/Re-association involves traffic channels in different cells,
over links between different MSCs and BSSs, and link between the
MSCs or a common switch connecting the two MSCs
Requires the highest degree of coordination in network infrastructure 50
An Intra-MSC Hard NCHO
1. Handoff from old to new BS initiated by MSC
2. MSC assigns a free traffic channel to MS via new BS; MS
dissociates with old BS and re-associates with new BS
3. MS takes the new path and signals the MSC
4. MSC switches call over to the new traffic channel and
releases the old channel to BS
51
An Inter-MSC Hard NCHO
Detecting a drop in RSS, MSC A requests MSC B to find suitable new
BS; MSC B replies with identity of new BS2
MSC A requests MSC B to set up traffic channel at BS2; MSC B
acknowledges success to MSC A to initiate handoff
MSC A establishes traffic channel over trunk connecting to MSC B
MSC A signals MS to handoff to BS2 by dissociating from traffic
channel at BS1 and re-associating with new traffic channel at BS2
52
Lesson Objectives
Cellular Network Topology
Power Control
Making a Mobile Call
Traffic Modeling
Multiple Call Access Protocols
Handoff Management
Location Database Management
53
Location Management
Objective: to track the location of MS for call delivery
Location registration (update):
MS authentication
Database update
Call delivery:
Database query
Paging MS
Minimization of database update/query cost
Trade-off between location update cost and call delivery cost:
to update or not to update (when the MS enters a new cell), that
is the question
Roaming support: redirection call from home network to visited
network
http://www.comsoc.org/~ci/private/1996/sept/akyildiz.html
54
Network Architectural Model for
Location Management
HLR
Cells
Location
Area LA 1
Location
Area LA 2
55
HLR and VLR Databases
HLR: Home Location Register database
stores permanent and temporary
information (e.g., which VLR stores the
user location) about each of its subscribers
VLR: Visitor Location Register database
stores temporary information e.g., the
physical location of the subscriber (i.e.,
which cell the user is in) in the location area
56
Registration Scenario
HLR
4
5 3
2
Cells
Location
1
Area LA 1
Location
Area LA 2
57
Registration Procedure
1. MS enters new LA and sends location update message to
BS
2. Message forwarded to MSC which launches registration
query to VLR
3. If MS is known to VLR, VLR updates new location and
registration is complete; else VLR determines location of
MS’ HLR from the mobile identification number and sends
location registration message to HLR
4. HLR authenticates the MS, updates identity of current VLR
in the database, and acknowledges the location registration
to the VLR; all or part of user profile may be forwarded to
new VLR
5. HLR sends registration cancellation to old VLR, which
deletes the MS’ record and acknowledges the cancellation
58
Call Delivery Scenario
1
4
HLR
2
Calling
Switch
5
3
(SSP)
6
7
Cells
Location 7
Area LA 1
Location
Area LA 2
59
Call Delivery Procedure
1. Call for MS arrives at MS’ home network
2. HLR identifies VLR currently serving MS and sends route
request message to VLR, which relays the message to the
MSC serving the MS
3. MSC allocates temporary local directory number (TLDN)
to MS and informs the HLR
4. HLR forwards this information to the calling switch (SSP)
5. Calling SSP then sets up a connection to the called MSC
via SS7 signaling
6. MSC pages MS via all the cells in the LA in which the MS
is currently located to alert MS about incoming call
7. MS replies via serving BS; MSC allocates traffic channel in
cell where MS is located to complete call 60
Database Optimization
HLR and VLR are potentially far apart, resulting in
expensive signaling cost for frequent location updates
Techniques to minimize HLR lookup for call delivery
Per user location caching in SS7 network
User profile replication at local database
Techniques to minimize HLR access for location update
Pointer forwarding between successive VLRs
Local anchoring at a serving VLR
61
Pointer Forwarding Scenario
HLR
LA 1 2 LA 4
4
3
VLR MSC VLR MSC
LA 2 LA 3
62
Local Anchoring Scenario
HLR
Local Anchor 1
VLR MSC
VLR MSC
4 LA 4
LA 1
2 3
LA 2 LA 3
63
Dynamic Location Update
Algorithms
Based on the call and mobility patterns of individual MS
Cells
65