Mobile Radio Propagation 2

Cellular Mobile Communications-
V
Mobile Radio Propagation
Dr. Nasir D.
Gohar
Wireless Communications, Principles and Applications

Ch.5 [Small Scale Path Loss] by RAPPAPORT
Propagation Characteristics Observed in Macro / Micro
Cells by H. L. Bertoni
Modeling a Radio Channel: Most difficult part
in Radio System Design
 Highly unpredictable as compared to fixed wire-
line media
 Transmission path and its parameters keeps
changing instantaneously
Changes in path profile
Obstructions
Environmental changes
 Typically done statistically based on field
measurements[System Specific]
Physical survey *1
Computer simulation using certain models and
terrain data *2
*1 Gives some real picture of the environment and data can be incorporated to new system design and predict its
performance
*2 Empirical Models and Terrain data may not be quite updated
T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 2

The Multi-path Environment
 The received signal is made up of a sum of attenuated,
phase shifted and time delayed versions of the transmitted
signal.
 Propagation modes include diffraction, transmission and
reflection.

The Mult-ipath Environment - contd.
Assuming receiver is stationary and there is no
direct path, the received signal can be expressed as a
sum of delayed components or in terms of phasor
notation:
N
Pulse train er (t ) = ∑ai p (t − ti ),

i =1
A single pulse er (t ) = ∑ ai cos (2πf c + φ i )

i =1
Where: ai is the amplitude of the scattered signal, p(t) is the transmitted signal
(pulse) shape, ti is the time taken by the pulse to reach the receiver, N is the
number of different paths taken by the signal to reach receiver, and fc is the carrier
frequency
The Multi-path Environment - contd.
a b
No direct
Diffracted Reflected
wave path
wave
a a
Antenna y=a+b Antenna y=0
b b
a & b are in phase a & b are out of phase by π
Complete fading
Fading
Is due to multi-path propagation.
With respect to a stationary base station, multipath
propagation creates a stochastic standing wave pattern,
through which the mobile station moves.

Caused by shadowing:
 when the propagation environment is changing
significantly, but this fading is typically much slower than
the multipath fading.

Modem design is affected mainly by the faster
multipath fading, which
T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5
can be normally assumed6 to
NDG Notes
Fading - Types
Slow (Long) Term
Fast (Short) Term (Also known as Rayleigh Fading)
Signal strength relative to 1uV (db)
30
Fast fading
20
10
Slow fading
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 Distance (λ)
Exact representation of fading characteristics is not possible,
because of infinite number of situation.
Fading - Slow (Long) Term
Slower variation in mean signal strength as the receiver
moves behind buildings and the propagation paths are
obscured
Variations of up to 20dB will cause handovers and
change quality-of-service
Caused by shadowing:
Terrain configuration: Results in local
mean (long term fading) attenuation and
fluctuation.
The built environment (rural and urban
areas etc.), between base station and
the mobile unit:
Results in local mean attenuation
Fading- Fast (Short) Term
 Describes the constant amplitude fluctuations in the received
signal as the mobile moves.
 Caused by multipath reflection of transmitted signal by local
scatters (houses, building etc.)
Observed over distances = λ/2
Signal variation up to 30 dB.
Is a frequency selective phenomenon.
Can be described using Raleigh statistics, (no line of sight).
Can be described using Rician statistics, (line of sight).
Causes random fluctuations in the received power, and also
Distorts the pulse carrying the information.
Fading- Fast (Short) Term - contd.
A received signal amplitude is given as the sum of
delayed components. In terms of phasor notation it is
given as:
N
er (t ) = ∑ ai cos (2πf c + φ i )
i =1
Or
N N
er (t ) = cos( 2πf ct ) ∑ ai cos (φi ) − sin( 2πf ct ) ∑ ai sin( φi )
i =1 i =1
In-phase Quadrature

The phaseφi can be assumed to be uniformly distributed in
the range (0, 2π), provided the locations of buildings etc. are
completely random.
This for large N, the amplitude of the received signal is:

er (t ) = X cos( 2πf ct ) − Y sin( 2πf ct )
N N
where X = ∑ ai cos (φi ), Y = ∑ ai sin(φi )
i =1 i =1
X and Y are independent, identically distributed Gaussian random

variables.
The envelope of the received signal is:
2 2 0.5
A = (X + Y ) Which will be Raleigh distributed.
Rayleigh
Probability
density
function
Exponential
A or power P
Raleigh Distribution
If the impulse response h(τ , t) of the mobile
radio station is time invariant (without a
significant deterministic ) and has zero mean,
then the envelope of the impulse response
has a Rayleigh Distribution given as:
r  r2 
p ( r ) = 2 exp  − 
2 
σ  2σ 
where σ2 is the total power in the multi-path

signal
Rice Fading
 If however the impulse response has a non zero mean then there is a
significant component of the direct path (line of sight, specular
component) signal and the magnitude of the impulse response has a
Ricean distribution
 Ricean distribution is the combination of Rayleigh signal with the direct
line of sight signal. The distribution is:
r  r 2 + s 2   rs 
p( r ) = 2 exp  − I
2  0 2 
σ  2σ   σ 
σ2 is the power of the line of sight signal and I0 is a

Bessel
T.S. Rappaport function of the
Ch 4-5 NDGfirst
Notes kind 14
Fading
Multi-path create small-scale fading
effects
Rapid changes in the signal strength
due to movement and/or time
Random frequency modulation due to
Doppler shift on different multipath
propagation paths
Time dispersion due to multipath
propagation delay

Fast Fading – Cases 1: Stationary Mobile
Field strength
V
V
Stationary
V t
V
Mobile is stationery surrounded by moving cars.

The number of fading depends on the :
Traffic flow
Distance between the mobile and moving cars
Fast Fading – Cases 2: Non-stationary Mobile
Field strength
No scattered signals Signal level
θ
V
t
The received signal at the mobile is:
j ( 2 πf t −βx cos θ)
r s = Ae
x = Vt
Amplitude Wave number =2π/
λ
Transmitting frequency
 SMALL SCALE MULTI-PATH PROPAGATION
 Multi-path reception of several versions of the same transmitted
radio signal arriving at certain location [Rx] causes fading effects.
Rapid Fluctuations in Signal Strength [over very short distance or

time period]
Random Frequency Modulation due to Varying Doppler Shifts on
Different Multi-Path Signals
Time Dispersion / Echoes due to Multi-Path Propagation Delay
 Multi-path propagation occurs even when there is LOS path

 In multi-path channel environment, the received signal at any
point would be a vector sum of all the versions/components of the
signal, reaching at the point, which may widely differ in magnitude
and phase.

Multipath Channel: Impulse Response Model
 A mobile radio channel can be modeled as a linear filter with
time varying Impulse Response [IR].
 IR contains all the necessary information required to simulate
or analyze any type of radio transmission through the channel.
 IR is a useful channel characterization which can be used to
predict and compare the performance of many mobile
communication systems/transmission bandwidths for any given
particular channel condition.
x(t) y(t)
h(t)
Fig-1: Impulse Response Model of a LTI system. The output signal y(t) can be obtained from the
convolution of the input signal x(t) with the IR = h(t) of the system. If x(t) is band limited
signal, y(t) is also band limited regardless h(t) is band limited or not. So, we can assume
LTI system to be band limited if the input is band limited.

 Suppose an MS is moving along the ground at a constant velocity
v.
 At a certain fixed location distant d, the system can be assumed
as LTI system.
 Due to multi-path reception, various multi-path components will
have different delays associated with them because of difference
in distance covered.
 So, the IR of this LTI system is a function of time as well as of
distance, i.e. IR = h(d,t)
d spatial position
Fig-2: The Mobile Radio Channel as a Function of Time and Space

 Multipath Channel: Impulse Response Model
∝
 y(d, t) = x(t)⊗h(d,t) = ∫ - ∝ x(τ) h(d, t- τ) dτ
 y(d, t) = t∫ - ∝ x(τ) h(d, t- τ) dτ when h(d,t) = 0 for t>0.
 When MS is moving at a constant speed v, then d = vt, so,

y(vt, t) = t∫ - ∝ x(τ) h(vt, t- τ) dτ
 Since v is constant, so, y(vt, t) is a function of time,

y(t) = t∫ - ∝ x(τ) h(vt, t- τ) dτ = x(t)⊗h(vt,t) = x(t)⊗h(d,t)
 As the velocity can be assumed constant over a small time interval (short
distance), so, Mobile Radio Channel can be assumed as a time varying
multi-path channel where t represents time variation due to MS in motion
and τ represents the channel multi-path delay for a fixed value of t.

∝
 y(t) = ∫ - ∝ x(τ) h(t, τ) dτ = x(t)⊗h(t, τ) and r(t) = c(t) ⊗ ½(hb (t, τ) )
x(t) y(t)
h(t, τ ) = Re { hb (t, τ) exp (jwct)}
c(t) r(t)
h(t, τ ) = ½ hb (t, τ)
Fig-3: Base band channel response model and its equivalent RI
 Here c(t) and r(t) are the complex envelop of x(t) and y(t) such
that x(t) = Re { c(t) exp (j2π fc t)} and y(t) = Re { r(t) exp (j2π fc t)}
 Average Power of BP signal x2 (t) = ½ |c(t) |2, over bar denotes
ensemble average of stochastic signal.

 If τ0 represents the excess time delay of the first arriving multi-
path signal and then ∆τ = τ1 - τ0 but as τ0 = 0, so, ∆τ = τ1 .
 τi = i x . ∆τ , and if there are N multi-path components, then

maximum excess delay of the channel is N x ∆τ
 This model can be used to analyze the transmitted signals having

BW which are less than 1/2 ∆τ
 hb (t, τ) = Σ ai (t, τ) exp [j(ωc τi(t)+ φi(t, τ) )] δ (t, τi(t)). Sum over I = 0 to N-1
where ai (t, τ) and τi(t)) are real amplitude and excess delay of ith multi-
path component at time t.
 The power delay profile of the channel is found by taking the spatial
average of | hb (t, τ) |2 over a local area.
 The received power delay profile is given P(t, τ) ≈ k| hb (t, τ) |2 , k is the
gain relating the transmitted power in the probing pulse to the total power
received.
 If a CW signal is transmitted into the channel, let the complex
envelop be given by c(t) = 2, then, instantaneous complex
envelop of received signal is given as
r(t) = Σ ai exp [jθi(t, τ) )] , summation over i = 0 to N-1
and instantaneous received power is
| r(t)|2= |Σ ai exp [jθi(t, τ) )]|2 , summation over i = 0 to N-1
EXERCISE: Do Example-4.2 and Example-4.3 carefully at home.

 Small-Scale Multipath Measurements
Channel Sounding Techniques
 Used to determine Power Delay Profile/Channel Impulse Response of
any channel
Direct RF Pulse System
Fig-01: Direct RF Channel Impulse Response Measurement System

Spread Spectrum Channel Impulse Response Measurement
System
Fig-02: Spread Spectrum Channel Impulse Response Measurement System

Spread Spectrum Channel Impulse Response Measurement
System
 Advantages
Rejects pass-band noise
Improves the coverage range of a given Tx power
No need of Tx and Rx PN synchronization-thanks to sliding correlator
Due to inherent processing gain, Tx power required is considerably
less
 Disadvantages
No real time measurements
Measurement time for power delay profile may be relatively
excessive
Due to non-coherent detection, information about the phases of
individual multi-path components is lost

 Important Multi-path Channel Parameters
 The Mean Excess Delay τ : It is also called first moment of the power
delay profile and is defined as
………………..E-01
 The RMS Delay Spread σ τ : It is the square root of the second central
moment of the power delay profile and is given as
………………..E-02
where
………………..E-03
* These delays are measured wrt the first detectable multi-path

signal component arriving at Rx at τ0 = 0.
** Typical values for στ are in usec for outdoor channels and nsec for
indoor mobile channels.
 The Maximum Excess Delay τX : The max. excess delay at which a
multi-path component is within X dB from the strongest multi-path
component (may not necessarily arriving at τ0 ).
Also known as excess delay spread of the power delay profile.
Fig-3: Example of an indoor power delay profile, mean excess delay, rms delay spread and excess delay spread

 Coherence Bandwidth Bc
It is a defined relation derived from the rms delay spread στ.
Range of frequencies over which the mobile channel can be considered
flat (a channel that passes all frequencies with almost equal gain and
linear phase).
Bc ≈ 1/ 50 στ [for frequency correlation function of above 0.9]
≈ 1/5 στ [for frequency correlation function of above 0.5]
EXAMPLE-01: A multi-path power delay
profile is given in Fig-04. Calculate
mean excess delay, rms delay spread,
and max. excess delay(10 dB). Estimate
the 50% coherence bandwidth of the
channel. Would it be suitable for AMPS
or GSM without equalizers?

 Doppler Spread BD and Coherence Time TC
Describe the time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale
region.
BD = fm = v/c * fc, the maximum doppler shift
TC ≈ 1/ fm
TC ≈ 0.423/ fm [A popular rule of thumb]
EXAMPLE-02: Assuming the consecutive samples having high time correlation,
calculate the proper spatial interval required for proper small-scale propagation
measurements. If the test van runs at v = 120 km/h and fc = 900 MHz, how many
samples would be required in 10 m interval. Assuming that measurements can be
made in real time, how much time it take to make these measurements. What is
Doppler spread for the channel?
SOLUTION : Worst case Tc = 9/16 *Pi* fm = 9C/16*Pi* v fc = ?

Samples should be taken at a rate less than 0.5 *Tc = ?
∆x = vTc/2 =? So, number of samples reqd. over 10 m distance = 10/ ∆x .

 Types of Small-Scale Fading
 Depending on the signal parameters [BW, Symbol Period] and
channel parameters [ rms delay spread and Doppler spread], in a
multi-path environment transmitted signals under go
different kinds of fading:
 Multi-path delay spread causes:
Flat Fading : BW of signal < BW of channel and delay spread <
symbol period, most common fading, amplitude and phase of the
transmitted signal is changed depending upon the multi-path but no
frequency shift is observed [spectral characteristics preserved].
Frequency Selective Fading: BW of signal > BW of the channel
and delay spread > symbol period
 Doppler Spread leads to
Fast Fading: Higher BD, TC < symbol period, rapid fluctuations of
signal strength due to very high variations in channel Impulse
Response faster than base-band signal variations
Slow Fading: Just opposite to fast fading

 Fading Effects due to Multi-Path Time Delay Spread
 Flat Fading: In a multi-path radio channel, signal will undergo a flat
fading if
Bs << Bc and Ts >> rms delay spread of the channel
Spectral characteristics of the signal remain unchanged.
Amplitude and phase of the transmitted signal will
change in Flat Fading Channel. [Also known as Amplitude
Varying Channel or Narrowband Channel]
Fig-1: Flat Fading Channel Characteristics

 Fading Effects due to Multi-Path Time Delay Spread
 Frequency Selective Fading: In a multi-path radio channel, signal will
undergo a frequency selective fading if
Bs > Bc and Ts < rms delay spread of the channel
 Amplitude and phase of the transmitted signal will change as well as
spectral characteristics in Frequency Selective Fading Channel. [Also
known as wideband Channel]
 ROT: Ts < 10 στ will make a channel FSFC.
Fig-2: Frequency Selective Fading Channel Characteristics

 Fading Effects due to Doppler Spread
 Fast Fading: In a multi-path radio channel, signal will undergoes

a fast fading if
Ts > Tc and Bs < BD
Channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration.
Leads to frequency dispersion which in turn increases signal
distortion.
 Slow Fading: In a multi-path radio channel, signal will undergoes
a slow fading if
Ts << Tc and Bs >> BD
Channel impulse response varies at a rate much slower than the
transmitted base-band signal. {Static Channel]
** Fast and Slow Fading should not be confused with Large-Scale

and Small-Scale fading.

 Fading Effects due to Doppler Spread
Fig-3: Fading of signal as function of Symbol Period and Base-band Signal BW

Classification of the Channels
 Time-Flat Channel: A time-invariant channel which remains flat
(constant) during at least the transmission time of one symbol.
 Frequency-Flat Channel: A frequency non-selective channel in
which bandwidth of the transmitted signal Bs is less than
coherence bandwidth Bc of the channel.
 Flat-Flat Channel: A time-flat and frequency flat channel.
 Non-Flat Channel: A time-variant and frequency selective
channel Time-Flat Non-Flat
Channel Corelation bandwidth
Signal Bandwidth/
Fig-4: Classification of the Channels

Flat-Flat Frequenc
y-Flat
Symbol Time/Channel Correlation

Time

 Link Budget Calculation
 Large-Scale Fading
 Shadowing Effect
 Small-Scale [Fast] Fading
Fig-6: Link Budget Calculation for Fading Channels [AB-2000]

Statistical Models for Multi-path Fading Channels
 Clark’s Model for Flat Fading
 Basic Assumptions
 Takes into account only Scattering mechanism
 No direct line-of-sight path considered
 A fixed Tx with vertical polarization
 N azimuthal plane waves with arbitrary phases and angle of incidence and equal
average amplitude
Fig-01: N Azimuthal plane waves arriving at random angles

Statistical Models for Multi-path Fading
Channels
Mobile Rx is in motion at velocity v in x-direction.
The Doppler shift of nth plane wave arriving at angle is given
as
fn = v cosα n / λ
It can be shown* that random received signal envelop r has
a Rayleigh Distribution given by
p ( r ) = (r/ σ 2 ) exp ( - r2 / 2 σ 2 ) for 0 <= r <= ∞

=0 for r < 0
* Derivation follows, as given in the TB pp-178-179

Channels
 Spectral Shape in Clark’s Model
Gans developed a spectrum analysis for Clark’s Model
Total received power at Rx can be expressed as
and instantaneous frequency of the received signal component is

given as
And it can be shown* that output spectrum is [see Fig-02]
* Derivation is as given in TB pp-179-180

 Spectral Shape in Clark’s Model
Fig-02: Doppler Power Spectrum for an un-modulated CW carrier

 Statistical Models for Multi-path Fading Channels
 Simulation of Clark’s Model
Fig-03: Clarke’s Simulator using AM with a [a] Doppler Filter [b] Base-Band
Doppler Filter

 Level Crossing and Fading Statistics
Important statistical parameters useful for designing Error Control Codes
Level Crossing Rate (LCR) is expected rate at which Rayleigh fading
envelop, normalized to the local rms signal level, crosses a specified level
in positive-going direction. And this number is given by
Where r is d (r(t))/dt, p(R,r) is the joint density function of r and r at r =

R, and fm is max. Doppler shift, and ρ = R/Rrms
Average Fade Duration is the average period of time for which the
received signal is below a specified level R. For Rayleigh fading
signal it is given by

Channels
 Example-1: For a Raleigh fading signal, calculate N
such that ρ = 1 and fm = 20 Hz. If fc = 900 MHz
what would be the velocity of the mobile to get this
Doppler shift?
 Example-2: Calculate the Average fade duration for

previous example. Repeat it when threshold level is
reduced to ρ = 0.01.

Mobile Radio Propagation 2

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Cellular Mobile Communications-

Wireless Communications, Principles and Applications

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 2

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 3

Pulse train er (t ) = ∑ai p (t − ti ),

A single pulse er (t ) = ∑ ai cos (2πf c + φ i )

a & b are in phase a & b are out of phase by π

through which the mobile station moves.

the multipath fading.

Fading- Fast (Short) Term - contd.

This for large N, the amplitude of the received signal is:

X and Y are independent, identically distributed Gaussian random

where σ2 is the total power in the multi-path

σ2 is the power of the line of sight signal and I0 is a

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 15

Mobile is stationery surrounded by moving cars.

Rapid Fluctuations in Signal Strength [over very short distance or

 Multi-path propagation occurs even when there is LOS path

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 18

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 19

Fig-2: The Mobile Radio Channel as a Function of Time and Space

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 20

 y(d, t) = t∫ - ∝ x(τ) h(d, t- τ) dτ when h(d,t) = 0 for t>0.

 When MS is moving at a constant speed v, then d = vt, so,

 Since v is constant, so, y(vt, t) is a function of time,

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 21

Fig-3: Base band channel response model and its equivalent RI

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 22

 τi = i x . ∆τ , and if there are N multi-path components, then

 This model can be used to analyze the transmitted signals having

and instantaneous received power is

| r(t)|2= |Σ ai exp [jθi(t, τ) )]|2 , summation over i = 0 to N-1

EXERCISE: Do Example-4.2 and Example-4.3 carefully at home.

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 24

Fig-01: Direct RF Channel Impulse Response Measurement System

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 25

Fig-02: Spread Spectrum Channel Impulse Response Measurement System

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 26

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 27

* These delays are measured wrt the first detectable multi-path

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 29

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 30

SOLUTION : Worst case Tc = 9/16 *Pi* fm = 9C/16*Pi* v fc = ?

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 31

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 32

Fig-1: Flat Fading Channel Characteristics

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 33

Fig-2: Frequency Selective Fading Channel Characteristics

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 34

 Fast Fading: In a multi-path radio channel, signal will undergoes

** Fast and Slow Fading should not be confused with Large-Scale

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 35

Fig-3: Fading of signal as function of Symbol Period and Base-band Signal BW

Fig-4: Classification of the Channels

Symbol Time/Channel Correlation

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 37

Fig-6: Link Budget Calculation for Fading Channels [AB-2000]

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 38

Fig-01: N Azimuthal plane waves arriving at random angles

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 39

p ( r ) = (r/ σ 2 ) exp ( - r2 / 2 σ 2 ) for 0 <= r <= ∞

* Derivation follows, as given in the TB pp-178-179

T.S. Rappaport Ch 4-5 NDG Notes 40

SOLUTION : Worst case Tc = 9/16 Pi fm = 9C/16Pi v fc = ?