Chapter 6 Ship Resistance

As a ship moves through the water, it experiences forces that work against its forward movement. The sum of all these forces is the

- This is designated as

RT

- It is from this value that the Effective Horsepower, EHP, is calculated

Resistance Values and Coefficients

Resistance values, denoted by R, are dimensional values RT = Total hull resistance is the sum of all resistance

RT = RAA + RW + RV
RAA = Resistance caused by calm air on the superstructure RW = Resistance due to waves caused by the ship
- A function of beam to length ratio, displacement, hull shape & Froude number (ship length & speed)

RV = Viscous resistance (frictional resistance of water)

- A function of viscosity of water, speed, and wetted surface area of ship

Total Resistance and Relative Magnitude of Components

The amount of each resistance component will vary depending on speed:

Resistance (lb)

Air Resistance Hollow Hump Wave-making Viscous Speed (kts)

- At low speeds Rv dominates - At higher speeds Rw is dominates - Hump (Hollow)- location is function of ship length and speed

Speed-Power Trends
EHP = (Resistance) x (Speed)

Similar to the resistance components are the

- Resistance Coefficients, , are dimensionless values of resistance - Allow the comparison of dissimilarly shaped vessels - Used extensively in modeling

Coefficients
CT = Coefficient of total hull resistance

C T = CV + C W
- CV = Coefficient of viscous resistance over the wetted area of the ship as it moves through the water - CF = Tangential component (skin resistance) - KCF = Normal component (viscous pressure drag) - CW = Coefficient of wave-making resistance

Coefficient of Viscous Resistance, CV Lets look at the resistance due to the water, CV, first - Consists of tangential and normal components

CV = Ctangential + Cnormal = CF + KC F
al orm n

flow

bow

l tia en ng ta

ship

stern

- Tangential resistance, CF, is parallel to ships hull and causes a net force Skin Friction opposing the motion by the water - Normal resistance, KCF, is perpendicular to the ships hull. K is unique to the hull form

Coefficient of Viscous Resistance, CV Tangential Component, CF

Also called the hull frictional resistance, CF can be characterized by the fluid flow around the hull:

Laminar flow - Fluid flows in layers that do not mix transversely but
slide over one another

Turbulent flow -The flow is chaotic and mix transversely

- Denoted by the Boundary Layer - The boundary layer forms at the Transition point where flow changes from laminar to turbulent

Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow

Coefficient of Viscous Resistance, CV Normal Component, KCF

- Causes a pressure distribution along the underwater hull form of ship - A high pressure is formed in the forward direction opposing the motion and a lower pressure is formed aft - Normal component generates the eddy behind the hull - Is affected by hull shape Fuller shape ship has larger normal component than slender ship

large eddy small eddy

Full ship Slender ship

Coefficient of Viscous Resistance, CV - The viscous resistance component CV can be related to another common dimensionless coefficient, the Reynolds Number

Rn = L V

Reynolds Number

Laminar Flow Rn < 5 x 105

Turbulent Flow Rn > 1 x 106

How to Reduce the Viscous Resistance Coefficient

Increase L while keeping the submerged volume constant

- For tangential component, increasing the length decreases the skin resistance - For normal component, a more slender ship decreases the pressure drag on the hull

Very long, narrow, slender hull is favorable ( A slender hull form will create a smaller pressure difference between bow and stern)

Froude Number, Fn
The Froude Number is another dimensionless value derived from model testing

Fn = V \/gL
Also used, but not dimensionless, is the Speed-to-Length Ratio: Speed-to-Length Ratio

= V \/L

...Velocity is typically expressed in Knots (1 knot = 1.688ft/s)

Coefficient of Wave Resistance, CW Typical Wave Patterns are made up of TRANSVERSE and DIVERGENT waves Stern divergent wave Bow divergent wave

L Transverse wave
Wave Length

Wave-Making Resistance

Transverse Wave System

- Travel at approximately the same speed as the ship - At slow speeds, several crests exist along the ship length because the wave lengths are smaller than the ship length - As the ship increases speed, the length of the transverse wave increases - As the wave length approaches the ship length, the wave making resistance increases very rapidly ...This is the main reason for the dramatic increase in Total Resistance as speed increases

Wave-Making Resistance
When the transverse wave length equals the ships length the vessel has reached its HULL SPEED (Wave making resistance drastically increases above hull speed)

Vs < Hull Speed Slow Speed Vs Hull Speed Wave Length High Speed Wave Length

Wave-Making Resistance Divergent Wave System

- Divergent waves consist of Bow and Stern Waves - Interaction of the bow and stern waves create the Hollow or Hump on the resistance curve - Hump: The bow and stern waves are in phase, the crests are added up creating a larger divergent wave system - Hollow: The bow and stern waves are out of phase, the crests match the troughs so that smaller divergent wave systems are generated

Wave-Making Resistance Calculation of Wave-Making Resistance Coeff.

- Wave-making resistance is affected by: - beam to length ratio - displacement - hull shape - Froude number - The calculation of the coefficient is far too difficult and inaccurate from any theoretical or empirical equation - Model test in the towing tank and Froude expansion are needed to calculate the Cw of the real ship

Wave-Making Resistance
It takes energy to produce waves, and as speed increases, the energy required is a square function of velocity!

Lwave = 2V2 g
The limiting speed, or hull speed, can be found as:

V = 1.34 \/Ls
Note: Remember at the hull speed, Lwave and Ls are approximately equal!

Wave-Making Resistance Reducing Wave Making Resistance

1) Increasing ship length to increase the wave length
- Hull speed will increase - The hull speed will be greater for the longer ship (the wave-making resistance of longer ship will be small until the ship reaches to the hull speed)

2) Attaching Bulbous Bow to reduce the bow divergent wave

- Bulbous bow generates the second bow waves - The waves interact with the bow wave resulting in smaller bow divergent waves

Wave-Making Resistance Bulbous Bow

Other Type of Resistances

Appendage Resistance
- Frictional resistance caused by the underwater appendages such as rudder, propeller shaft, bilge keels and struts - 2 24% of the total resistance in naval ship

Steering Resistance
- Resistance caused by the rudder motion (small in warships but a problem in sail boats)

Added Resistance
- Resistance due to sea waves which will cause the ship motions (pitching, rolling, heaving, yawing)

Other Type of Resistances Increased Resistance in Shallow Water

Resistance caused by shallow water effect - Water flow is restricted under the vessel,so water velocity under the hull increases - The faster moving water decreases pressure causing the ship to squat - Increases wetted surface - Increases surface friction - Waves tend to be larger compared to waves in deep water at the same speed - Traveling through a canal can produce the same effect

 VL V R CT = 1 = f , = f ( Re,Fr ) 2 Lg 2 SV
When a model and its prototype are geometrically similar and their two dimensionless coefficients (Re, Fr) are the same, their resistance coefficients (CT) should be the same. Dimensional analysis reduces the number of the related parameters involved in model tests. However, it can take the problem no further than the above conclusion.

Model Tests of Ship Resistance

Model tests are widely used in the design and study of large engineering constructions, such as harbor, breakwater, bridge constructions, and ship buildings.

A ship model is geometrically similar to its prototype. The size of the model is usually much smaller than that of the ship. Ship model tests are employed to predict the resistance, the interaction between the hull and the propeller, seakeeping properties of a ship, etc. Therefore, model tests are very important in ship design and ship research. Here we focus on model resistance tests.

V gL

A typical resistance curve in a model test

A Towing Carriage and A Ship Model

Towing tank
Resistance tests in calm water

Resistance Test in Towing Tank

30

Resistance Test in Towing Tank

33

Seakeeping test in Laboratory

35

Propulsion


Sub Cavitating Propeller Fully Cavitated Propeller Surface Piercing Propeller (S.P.P.) Waterjet Air Propeller


Engine Reduction Gear Strut Seals

Bearing

Propulsor

Shaft

BLADE TIP TIP CIRCLE

Screw Propeller
HUB

37

ROOT
SUCTION BACK

PROPELLER DISC

PRESSURE FACE

ROTATION

TRAILING EDGE

LEADING EDGE

Propeller Pitch
The distance that the blade travels in one revolution, P - measured in feet pitch

57

diameter

Hub

Propeller

Propeller Geometry

Propeller Coefficients

Typical Chart

B-Series Charts

43

56

Blade Tip Cavitation Flow velocities at the tip are fastest so that pressure drop occurs at the tip first. Sheet Cavitation

Large and stable region of cavitation covering the suction face of propeller.

Consequences of Cavitation

1) Low propeller efficiency (Thrust reduction) 2) Propeller erosion (mechanical erosion as bubbles collapse, up to 180 ton/in pressure) 3) Vibration due to uneven loading 4) Cavitation noise due to impulsion by the bubble collapse

.S. P. P
.

 .S.P.P

 .S.P.P

Waterjet

Cavitation Tunnel

Applications: Assessment of Propeller and Duct Performance Flow Visualization and Determination of Drag Characteristics for Various Appendages Cavitation Studies

58

Propeller Test

06

Geometrical similarity indicates the main characteristics of a model & its prototype are in the same ratio.

Ls =m Lm

or , for a model and its prototype

having the same Fr & Re, then we requir e Vs Ls Vs Lm s 1 = = m, & = ; , Vm Lm Vm Lsm m if both are run in water at the similar density & temperature, s = m. Since m ? 1 , it is almost impossible to satisfy both,

( Fr ) m = ( Fr ) s

and ( Re ) m = ( Re ) s

1. In order to overcome this fundamental difficulty to satisfy the similarity laws, a major (first) assumption was made by Froude that the frictional and the wave-making resistances are independent, and the frictional-resistance coeff. depends only on the Reynolds #. The wave-making or residual resistance coeff. depends only on the Froude # .

V R VL = CT = CF + CR = f1 + f2 2 1 gL SV 2 RF VL Frictional Resistance: CF = 1 = f1 2 2 V S V RR Wave-making Resistance: CR = 1 = f2 2 gL V S 2

2. It is also assumed that the frictional resistance coeff. of a ship (or a model) is the same as that of a smooth flat plate with the same length and wetted surface area as the ship (or the model). Therefore, CF or RF of a ship (or a model) can be computed given the length according to the half-analytically & half-empirically friction formulas. 3. Based on these two assumptions, we may determine the resistance of a ship at a constant velocity given the results of model resistance test. The steps are detailed below.
a. At Vm , the total resistance of a model, RTm , can be measured. Thus CTm = RTm , 2 1 2 S mVm

where Sm is the model's wetted surface area.

b. According to the 2 nd assumption, CFm , can be computed given the length of model according to a friction coefficient formula. c. Computing the model's residual resistance coefficient CRm = CTm CFm . d. If Vs Vm Vs = , namely, = Vm gLs gLm Ls = m , then Lm

V CRm = CRS = f 2 , gL the ship's residual resistance coefficient is computed. e. Same as in Step b, CFS can be computed given the ship's length. f. The total resistance coeff. of a ship is given by, CTS = CFS + CRS = CFS + CRm = CFS + CTm CFm = CTm ( CFm CFS ) .

g. The total resistance of a naked ship (excluding appendages) can be obtained, RS = CTS 1 SS Vs2 , at VS = mVm . When 2 two geometrically similar ships are running at speeds which conform to the Froude Law, Frs = Frm , they are said to be running S s Ls at corresponding speeds. It is noticed that, = = m2 . S m Lm
2

In most cases, the total resistance of a ship can be determined accurately based on the model test results using the above method. However, the method is based on the 2 major assumptions (a. CF & CR are independent, b. CFS of a ship is equal to that of a flat plate with the same length). Sometimes the errors due to the approximations may be significant. We will study the frictional, wave-making and eddy-making resistances in detail, for understanding the computation using the method & its validity.

5.5 Frictional Resistance

Laminar and Turbulent Flow (review of CVEN 311) Laminar flow: the fluid appears to move by the sliding of laminations of the infinitesimal thickness relative to adjacent layers. Turbulent flow: is characterized by fluctuations in velocity at all points of the flow field and these fluctuations with no definite frequency. Whether a flow is laminar or turbulent flow depends mainly on its Reynolds #. For a plate flow,

when Re < 10 6 Re > 108

the flow is laminar, the flow is turbulent,

106 < Re < 108 the flow is transitional

 Friction formulas for a flat plate The following formulas are commonly used.
1) Blasius formula. (Laminar flow) CF = 1.32 / Re, Re < 4.5 10 5. Re = VL , CF = RF , thus, RF V 1.5. 1 SV 2 2

2) Prandtl and von Karman formula (turbu lent flow) A 1 = log 10 ( Re CF ) + M , CF = 0.074( RN ) 5, thus, RF V 1.8 . CF 3) Schoenherr formula (1947 ATTC line , derived based on 2)) 0.242 = log 10 ( Re CF ) , for Re 4.5 10 8. CF 4) 1957 ITTC line formula (known as ship -model correlation line not a friction coef ficient for a flat plate, turbulent flow ) 0.075 CF = , for Re 10 7. 2 ( log10 Re 2 )