Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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AE 587
Lecture Topics
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Introduction Sand casting Design of mold elements Solidification of casting Fluidity Casting processes; expendable and permanent casting processes Melting practice and Furnaces Factors affecting casting cost Casting quality Design Considerations for Casting
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Casting Processes
DEFINITION:
The casting process is defined as the process of melting (heating to a proper temperature above the freezing point) of a material (mostly metals) and treating it to have a proper composition, then pouring the molten material into a cavity or mold which holds it in the proper shape during solidification. The product of this process a casting.
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Selection of casting processes over other manufacturing processes Casting Processes are selected for the following reasons:
to produce complex shapes with internal cavities or hollow sections. to produce very large parts weighing up to 30 tons. to utilize work piece materials that are difficult to process by some other means. Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net shape economical to use Some casting methods are suited to mass production
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Disadvantages of Casting
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Different disadvantages for different casting processes: Limitations on mechanical properties Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes; e.g., sand casting Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals Environmental problems
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Expendable Mold Casting processes Mold is used one time Molds made of sand or Plaster or similar materials typical: Sand mold Shell mold Expended Polystyrene Plaster Investment etc.
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Permanent Mold casting processes Mold is used over and over to produce many castings Mold made of metal Typical: Slush Low pressure Die casting Centrifugal
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a) single-use molds: for small production such as sand casting, and b) permanent molds: for large production such as die casting. 2. MELTING PROCESSES 3. POURING TECHNIQUES 4. SOLIDIFICATION PROCESS 5. SHAKEOUT AND REMOVAL OF THE PRODUCT 6. CLEANING, FINISHING AND INSPECTION
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Mold Features
Mold Terminology:
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Runner Gates
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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Sand Casting
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Most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant majority of total tonnage cast Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium Castings range in size from small to very large Production quantities from one to millions
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Figure 11.1 A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for an air compressor frame (photo courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).
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Source: M. Groover, 2nd Ed.
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Sand casting mold Sand +bonding material+ Water Sand +bonding material Types Green sand mold Dry sand mold Core sand molds Loam molds Shell molds Cement bond molds
Pattern
+ Core
= Product
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Strong enough to hold the metal Resist erosive action of rapidly flowing metal during pouring Generates a minimum amount of gas when filled with molten metal Allows gases generated to pass through Refractory enough to withstand high temperature and strip away cleanly from the casting after cooling Core must collapse enough to permit the casting to contract after solidification
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Refractoriness The ability of sand to withstand high temperature It is provided by the basic nature of sand Common sand: Silica (SiO2), Zircon, or Olivine Cohesiveness The ability to retain a given shape when packed into a mold Adding bonding materials such as: Bentonite, kaolinite, or illite Permeability The ability to permit gases to escape through it Function of size and shape of sand particles, clay and moisture contents Collapsibility The ability to permit the metal to shrink after it solidifies and to free the casting from surrounding mold Obtained by adding cereals, cellulose or other organic materials that burn out when they contact hot metal. 15 AE 587
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Natural sand Sand + natural bond clay Used as received Loam sand Sand + 50% clay (natural) Used for large castings
Synthetic sand Washed sand + Binder (Bentonite) + Water Advantages over natural sand Uniform grain size Higher refractoriness Moldability with less moisture Require less binder Easier to control properties Less storage space
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PATTERNS
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The pattern is a duplicate of the part to be cast, modified to meet the requirements of the casting process, metal being cast, and molding technique.
The pattern dimensions are the same as the final product plus a set of allowances which include :
shrinkage allowance; for the contraction of the metal after it solidifies and cools. machining allowance; needed when the final product has surfaces to be machined after the casting process. draft allowance; a slope on the walls of the pattern to allow easy withdrew of the pattern from the mold. Other allowances such as distortion allowance
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PATTERNS
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Pattern materials
Wood; for small quantity Metal; for larger quantity Hard Plastics; used with organically bonded sand to avoid sand stick to pattern skin Wax; for investment casting Polystyrene; used with full mold-process
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Types of Patterns
Figure 11.3 Types of patterns used in sand casting: (a) solid pattern (b) split pattern (c) match plate pattern (d) cope and drag pattern
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CORE
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A core is made when the final product has an internal cavity or hollow. The core usually has the shape of the cavity plus allowances and a support, called a core print, to hold the core in the mold. The core(in sand casting) is made from a special sand mix which is collapsible under the shrinkage stress of the casting to avoid causing cracks on the casing.
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Core in Mold
Figure 11.4 (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible chaplet design, (c) casting with internal cavity.
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Core Materials
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Green sand Dry sand [ sand plus binder packed in wood or metal core box] Packed sand [ made by mixing sand with a vegetable oil or synthetic oil as binder, and water with cereal or clay to develop green strength. This process is called core-oil process. The mix is cured using hot force air at 400 to 500oF.] CO2 sand [sand + sodium silicate (water glass)] Shell sand [sand plus liquid thermosetting and catalyst is blown into a core box heated to around 450oF.]
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CORE
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Characteristics
sufficient hardness and strength (after baking or hardening) to withstand handling and forces of the molten metal sufficient strength before hardening to permit handling adequate permeability collapsibility to permit shrinkage of the casting as it cools, thereby prevent cracking and allow easy shakeout. adequate refractoriness smooth surface minimum generation of gases when heated during pour
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Mold Preparation
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Manual Use of jolting machines Squeezing machines Combined jolting and squeezing Automatic mold-making machines Match-plate machines Vertically parted flaskless molding machine
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Source: Kalpakjian
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Pouring system should be designed to ensure smooth flow "laminar flow" and fill the mold at the shortest possible time before metal solidify. A typical pouring system is shown in the Figure. It consists of the ht following:
1. POURING BASIN 2. SPRUE :It should be designed to ensure smooth flow and avoid aspiration 3. WELL 4. RUNNERS 5. GATES
Pouring System
Source: Ghosh/Mallik
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POURING TIME: The pouring time is defined as the time needed to fill or inject the molten metal into the mold. The pouring time can be estimated by applying the fluid flow laws; namely, the equation of continuity and Bernoulli's Equation The flow velocity at any point in the pouring system (sprue , gates, and runners) is controlled by the continuity equation:
Q = A1 v1 = A2 v2 ... etc.
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where Q = volumetric flow rate, in.3/sec (cm3/s), A = cross sectional area,in.2 (cm2) and v= flow velocity in./sec (cm/s). The flow velocity at the bottom of the sprue (see figure) is determined by applying Bernoulli's Equation. The velocity is
v3 = sqrt( 2. g. ht)
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where: g = gravitational acceleration; g=386 in./sec2 (981 cm/s2), and h3 = the height of the sprue, in. (cm)
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tf = V/ A3 v3
where V= volume of the casting including riser, in.3 (cm3) A3 = gating area in2 (cm2), and tf= pouring time in sec. BOTTOM GATING See Figure
2 Am tf = A3 2 g
where
ht (ht hm
]
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Flow Characteristics
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vD Re =
Where: v is the velocity of the liquid, D is the diameter of the channel, and and are the density and viscosity, respectively of the fluid. Re < 2000 laminar flow 2000<Re < 20,000 is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow Re>20,000 represent severe turbulent flow. q Proper flow and design of gating system is needed to prevent mold erosion and introduction of dross and slag inside the mold cavity
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Sprue Design
Tapered sprue is used to maintain constant liquid flow through it and avoid aspiration. Therefore, the following relation should be satisfied Q = A2 v2 = A3 v3 Hence, A2/A3 = sqrt(h3/h2)
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Example 1
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A mold has a top gating system with a downspure of length = 175 mm. The cross-sectional area at the bottom of the sprue is 400 mm2. The sprue leads into a horizontal runner that feeds the mold cavity, whose volume = 0.001 m3. Determine (a) the velocity of the molten metal flowing through the base of the downsprue, (b) the volume rate of flow, and (c) the time required to fill up the cavity.
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Example 2
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The volume rate of flow of molten metal into the downsprue from the pouring cup is 50 in.3/sec. The length of the sprue is 8.00 in. and the cross-sectional area at the top where the pouring cup leads into the downsprue is 1.0 in.2. Determine what the area should be at the bottom of the sprue in order to avoid aspiration of the liquid metal.
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Solidification of Metals
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Solidification is the transformation of molten metal back into solid state Solidification of pure metals is different from that of alloys.
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FIGURE 5.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals. Note that freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time.
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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Solidification is the growth of favorably oriented nuclei in the direction of heat extraction
Randomly oriented small grains form near the mold walls Columnar grains form towards the center of the mold shrink cavities (pipe) forms due to low supply of fresh liquid
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Solidification occurs at a constant temperature (like pure metal). Eutectic cells form inside the grains The properties of the cast part are affected by:
Cooling rate Nucleation agents Alloy modifications
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Solidification takes place over a freezing range. Grains grow in the direction of heat extraction. Initially solidified material has lower alloying element concentration. Solidification proceeds by dendritic form. Dendritics arms can break off and re-melt. At high cooling rate, the formed grains are smaller and the strength is improved. Dendrites result in microporosity.
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Alloy Solidification
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Alloy Solidification
Pouring Temperature Superheat Start of Solidification End of Solidification Solid Cooling
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 5.6 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the semi-solid (mushy) zone.
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Cast Structures
Columnar grains oriented towards the center of the mold Small, randomly oriented grains
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 5.5 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals, with preferred texture at the cool mold wall. Note in the middle of the figure that only favorable oriented grains grow away from the mold surface; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) structure obtained by heterogeneous 8/12/2009nucleation of grains. 40 AE 587
Dendritic Solidification
Ref: Porter, et al., Phase Transformations In Metals & Alloys, Van Nostrand Reinhold, UK, 1981
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 5.7 (a) Solidification pattern for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in) square casting. Note that after 11 min of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification pattern as the carbon contents increase, Source: After H. F. Bishop and W.S. Pellini.
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Cast Structures
FIGURE 5.8 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b) equiaxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: After D. Apelian.
FIGURE 5.9 Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane front, single phase, and (b) plane front, two phase. Source: After D. Apelian.
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Temperature Distribution
FIGURE 5.11 Temperature distribution at the mold wall and liquid-metal interface during solidification of metals in casting. Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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Solidification Example
FIGURE 5.12 Solidified skin on a steel casting; the remaining molten metal is poured out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is based on this principle. Source: After H.F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M.C. Flemings.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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Shrinkage
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Stages Liquid contraction during cooling prior to solidification Solidification shrinkage: Contraction during the phase change from liquid to solid Thermal contraction of the solidified casting during cooling to room temperature.
Solidification Stages
Source: Groover
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Metal Aluminum Al Alloys Gray cast iron Gray cast iron, high C Low C cast steel Copper Bronze
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Solid Thermal Contraction, % 5.6 5.0 3.0 3.0 7.2 7.5 6.0
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TST = Cm(V/A)n
where TST = Total solidification time in minutes n = is an exponent has a value between 1.5 to 2.0 V= casting volume in in.3 (cm3) A= surface area of the casting in.2 (cm2). Cm= the mold constant which depends on:
metal characteristics ( density, specific heat, and heat fusion) the properties of the mold material( density, thermal conductivity, and specific heat) amount of superheat Cm can be determined experimentally for each mold and metal
combination.
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Riser design
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The minimum size of a riser can be determined from Chvorinov's rule; the time of solidification of the riser (TSTr) should be at least 25% longer than that for the casting (TSTc):
Calculation of the riser geometry requires that V/A be maximum, and The size of the riser should be greater than the shrinkage volume of the casting.
TYPES OF RISERS
1. Top Riser: Characteristics: sits on top of the casting short feed distance required occupies less space in the flask, 2. Side Riser: Characteristics: located adjacent to the mold cavity in the horizontal direction. longer feeding distance occupies some of the flask space.
Basic types of risers
Source: DeGarmo/Black/ Kohser
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Risers must solidify after casting The riser should be placed so that it is continuously feed the casting and directional solidification is maintained Riser should be placed on the thermal center of the casting The feeding distance should be less than or equal the following recommendations.
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Riser Aids
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Purpose Promoting directional solidification Reducing number and size of risers Methods External chills Internal chills Reducing the cooling rate of risers Use open risers Use insulating sleeves around the rise Surround the sides and top of riser with exothermic materials that supply added heat to the riser.
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Chills
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Figure 10.9
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Chills
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
FIGURE 5.35 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners), used in castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a larger volume of metal, as shown in (c).
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Example 3
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A cylindrical riser is to be designed for a sand mold. The length of the cylinder is to be 1.25 times its diameter. The casting is a square plate, each side = 10 in., and thickness = 1.25 in. If the metal is cast iron and Cm = 16.0 min./in2 in Chvorinovs rule, determine the dimensions of the riser so that it will take 30% longer for the riser to solidify.
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Fluidity
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Fluidity is defined as the ability of a molten metal to flow and fill the mold. Fluidity measurement: Length of a spiral shape cast (Figure a) Plate mold length (Figure b) Length of a fill under vacuum
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Mold Design
Component dimensions, sprue, runners, riser affect fluidity to varying degree
Amount of Superheat
Fluidity increases with the increase of superheat. Increase of superheat lowers viscosity and delays solidification.
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Mold temperature
Fluidity increase with increasing mold temperature
Type of solidification
Columnar is helpful Dendritic slows down flow
Rate of pouring
Fluidity decreases with the decrease of the pouring rate.
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A heated match plate is placed Invert the box so that the sand on the box containing sand with resin fall on the hot plate and form resin binder a shell
Assemble two halves and place support with sand or metal shot in a box. The mold now is ready for pouring. Strip shell molds from the pattern Reposition the box to clear away uncured sand. The mold and shell are then placed in a furnace for 59 several minutes to complete curing.
Source: DeGarmo/Black/Kohser
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Shell Molding
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Advantages Provides better surface finish than ordinary sand casting (100 in or 2.5 m) Better dimensional accuracy, Tolerance of 0.003 to 0.005 (0.08 to 0.13 mm) are quite common. Economical; less labor, no further machining, etc. Good collapsibility of the mold help in avoiding tearing and cracking of the casting. The process can be completely mechanized Disadvantages More expensive metal pattern, thus it can not be justified for low volume production. Not suitable for large size products above 25 lb.
Shell Mold
Final Product
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Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is poured into mold Other names: lost foam process, lost pattern process, evaporativefoam process, and fullmold process Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and internal cores (if needed) Mold does not have to be opened into cope and drag sections
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Advantages Patterns need not to be removed from the mold; speed up the process of mold making, no draft or parting lines are needed, cores and risers build in the pattern Precision and surface finish are sufficiently good, then many machining and finishing operations could be eliminated. High metal utilization Sand can be recycled There is no limitations on the shape and size of product. Most metal can be cast Limitations Pattern cost can be high for small quantities Patterns are easily damaged or distorted because of their low strength
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Applications:
Mass production of castings for automobile engines Automated and integrated manufacturing systems are used to
1. Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then 2. Feed them to the downstream casting operation
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Source: Kalpakjian
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Advantages Can be used to produce casting of high accuracy and intricate detail. Close dimensional control; tolerances of +/- 0.003 in. are possible Good surface finish Wax can be recovered and used A net shape process, machining is not required Limitations Costly patterns and molds Labor costs can be high Limited size (less than 10 lb.) 68 AE 587
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Method Molds are made of steel or fine-grain cast iron Mold halves or sections are hinged so that they can open or close accurately. Molds are preheated at the beginning of the run to maintain uniform temperature. Cavity surfaces are to be coated with thin layer of refractory materials Cores can be used with permanent molds to form interior surfaces
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Finished Product
Source: Groover
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Advantages Good surface finish Accurate dimensions (within 0.01 in.) Solidification can be controlled using proper chill design Faster cooling rate produces stronger material than with sand casting. Multiple cavities can often be included in a single mold
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Disadvantages Limited to low melting point metals Common metals include alloys of aluminum, magnesium, copper, lead, tin, and zinc; irons and steel can also be cast in graphite molds. High initial cost Shape, size and part complexity are limitations Low yield rate, less than 60% Mold life is very limited; the actual mold life varies with:
Alloy being cast Mold material Pouring temperature Mold temperature Mold configurations
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Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume production and can be automated accordingly Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and missiles Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium, copperbase alloys, and cast iron
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Metal is injected in the mold at high pressure (1000 to 50,000 psi) Pressure is maintained during solidification Combination of metal mold and pressure, fine sections and excellent details can be achieved. Special zinc-, copper and aluminum-based alloys can be produced with excellent properties Dies are made from hardened hot-worked steel. Dies tend to be expensive. Dies can be designed for simple products, multiple product, or complex products. Dies usually have water cooling passages, cores, ejectors. Dies often cost in excess of $5000 to $10,000 Die life is limited by wear, and thermal fatigue. Die casting process is limited to mass production
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After part solidification, plunger withdrawn and die opened, and the part is then ejected using ejectors
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Close die and withdraw ram, then pour molten metal in the chamber
Activate ram to force metal in the die and maintain pressure until part solidify
Once part solidify, withdraw ram and activate ejection system to eject casting.
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Source: Groover
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Allows for casting of wider range of alloys Higher injection pressure and speed Lower tooling maintenance cost
Disadvantages q Slower cycle times than hot chamber process q Less control of metal temperature q The charge cools prior to injection. q Molten metal exposed to atmosphere
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Die Casting
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Advantages High production rate Economical for mass production Extremely smooth surface (40 to 100 in.) Excellent dimensional accuracy (Typically tolerances are 0.005 in. for the first inch and 0.002 in. for each additional inch) Can produce thin sections up to 0.03 in. Rapid cooling provides fine grain size and high strength. Limitations High initial cost Limited to high-fluidity nonferrous metals Part size is limited (1 oz up to 15 lb.) Porosity may be a problem Some scrap in sprue, runners and flash
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Multi-slide Dies
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This process is used primarily for casting small zinc components and is being used for casting magnesium parts PC controllers are used to control the position of the slides Up to 75 cycles per minute can be achieved
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The process is capable of producing high quality castings Commonly cast materials Al alloys, Mg alloys, and other low melting point alloys Sand cores can be used in the manufacture of parts with complex shapes. Aluminum castings from 2 - 150kg can be cast, but the most common casting weight is around 10kg High volume production is needed to justify the cost of the dies.
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Squeeze-Casting
FIGURE 5.28 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the advantages of casting and forging.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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A variation of cold chamber pressure die casting. Results in highly refined grain structure. Used in making pistons for diesel engines. Is performed by: Pouring a pre-measured amount of molten metal into the die. Allowing the metal to cool below liquidus. Closing the die.
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Source: http://www.entirecoupling.com/Product.htm
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q q q
The principle is the same as low-pressure die casting. The pressure inside the die is decreased by a vacuum pump and the difference of pressure forces the liquid metal to enter the die. This transfer is less turbulent than by other casting techniques so that gas inclusions can be very limited. As a consequence, this new technique is specially aimed to components which can subsequently be heat-treated. This is an alternative to investment casting, shell mold casting, and green-sand casting Suitable for thin-walled (0.75 mm; 0.03 in.) complex shaped with uniform properties Can be automated.
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Vacuum-Casting Process
FIGURE 5.19 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a bottom gate. (a) before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source: After R. Blackburn.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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Trimming Removing the core Surface cleaning Inspection Repair, if required Heat treatment
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Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, partingline flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal from the cast part q For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections are relatively small, appendages can be broken off q Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hacksawing, bandsawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch cutting methods are used
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Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise enhancing appearance of surface q Cleaning methods: tumbling, airblasting with coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and chemical pickling q Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting
In many permanent mold processes, this step can be avoided
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Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed to detect their presence
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Heat Treatment
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Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties Reasons for heat treating a casting:
For subsequent processing operations such as machining To bring out the desired properties for the application of the part in service
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Economics of Casting
FIGURE 5.39 Economic comparison of making a part by two different casting processes. Note that because of the high cost of equipment, die casting is economical mainly for large production runs. Source: The North American Die Casting Association.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
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Reduced direct assembly costs Reduced inventory Reduced floor space Reduced production flow, control, and inspection operations
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Casting Design Size, weight, and complexity of the casting are most important parameters Alloy Selection Alloying elements can be expensive (i.e. Ag) Some alloys are more difficult to melt and pour Higher temperatures may be needed to produce desired fluidity Protective environments may be needed
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Quality How well casting meets customers requirements How repeatable is the process. Quality is measured by: Chemical and mechanical properties defect-free casting Accuracy & consistency of dimensions Premium quality requirements will lead to cost increase Producing substandard part quality leads to cost increase
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Cost of patterns/dies Cost of Tooling Production Quantity Cost of Machining Cost of Heat treatment Other Costs
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Example: Cylinder Head Scrapped after casting: $50 Scrapped after final machining: $120 Scrapped after component assembly: $500 Replacement engine: $4000
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Identify process characteristics using product design requirements Identify feasible processes (use constraints). Eliminate unfeasible ones Rank feasible processes using desirable criteria (cost, lead time, No. of units, etc.) Identify any additional characteristics of feasible processes Select process of choice
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Process-Material Relationship
Manufacturing Process Sand casting Die casting Investment casting Low pressure casting Hot chamber die casting Lost Foam casting Cosworth casting
Compatible Material(s) F, NF F, NF F, NF NF NF F, NF NF
F = Ferrous, NF = Non-Ferrous
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Process-Product Relationship
Manufacturing Process Sand casting Die casting Investment casting Low pressure casting Lost Foam casting
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Process-Product Relationship
Other process-product relationships include q Shape Capability q Surface finish q Dimensional tolerances q Cost q Etc.
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Casting Applications
TABLE 5.3 Typical applications for castings and casting characteristics.
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Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather than pure metals
Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of product are better
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Most important of all casting alloys Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of all other metals combined Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular iron, (3) white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and (5) alloy cast irons Typical pouring temperatures 1400C (2500F), depending on composition
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Cast Irons
q
Gray cast iron : 2.5% to 4% C and 1% to 3% Si Has graphite flakes Ductile Iron: Has similar C and Si content as gray cast iron but with graphite spheroids White cast iron 2% to 3.3% C and 0.7% to 2% Si Produced by rapid cooling thus has cementite rather than flakes Malleable iron Heat treated white cast iron to get carbon out of cementite to form graphite
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FIGURE 5.14 Microstructure for cast irons. (a) ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes; (b) ferritic nodular iron, (ductile iron) with graphite in nodular form; and (c) ferritic malleable iron. This cast iron solidified as white cast iron, with the carbon present as cementite (Fe3C), and was heat treated to graphitize the carbon.
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The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive engineering material The capability to create complex geometries makes casting an attractive shaping process Difficulties when casting steel:
Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most other casting metals 1650C (3000F) At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten metal must be isolated from air Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
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Generally considered to be very castable Pouring temperatures low due to low melting temperature of aluminum
Tm = 660C (1220F)
Properties:
Light weight Range of strength properties by heat treatment Easy to machine
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q q
Limitation: high cost of copper Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller blades, pump components, ornamental jewelry
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Nonferrous Alloys
TABLE 5.5 alloys. Typical properties of nonferrous casting
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Aluminum Casting
q
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q q q
Low melting temperature. Negligible solubility of all gases (except hydrogen) in molten Al. Good surface finish of the cast product. Good fluidity. Better creep properties than wrought Al alloys.
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GURE 5.36 Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum. Note the sharp decrease in solubility as the molten metal begins to solidify.
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Variability in mechanical properties. Shrinkage in the amount of (3.5%- 8.5%). Mechanical properties are inferior to wrought Al products.
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High fluidity in most alloys Lower volumetric specific heat than Al and Zn Low density Low solubility of Fe in liquid Mg Good machineability.
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Fast cooling rate, thus fine grains Castings solidify from mold walls to center creating fine grains with low porosity in walls, and larger more porous grains in the core
Wall
Core
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http://www.dezign.org/zinc
Mold made of steel or graphite U-shaped riser is often used with gravity die casting Thicker gates are also used with gravity die casting
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Characteristics of Casting
TABLE 5.2 General characteristics of casting processes.
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Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping spout near base q Used only for cast irons
Although other furnaces are also used, the largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in cupolas
q
The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and possible alloying elements, is loaded through a charging door located less than halfway up height of cupola
Cupola furnace used in melting cast iron
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Source: Groover
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Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture q Sometimes called indirect fuel fired furnaces q Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or hightemperature steel alloy q Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum q Three types used in foundries: (a) liftout type, (b) stationary, (c) tilting
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Crucible Furnaces
Figure 11.19 Three types of crucible furnaces: (a) lift out crucible, (b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and (c) tilting-pot furnace.
Source: Groover
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ElectricArc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc q High power consumption, but electricarc furnaces can be designed for high melting capacity q Used primarily for melting steel
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Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in metal q Induced current causes rapid heating and melting q Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal q Since metal does not contact heating elements, environment can be closely controlled to produce molten metals of high quality and purity q Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common applications in foundry work
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Ladles
q
Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is sometimes done using crucibles More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles
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Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b) twoman ladle. Source: Groover
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Casting Quality
q
There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a casting operation, resulting in quality defects in the product The defects can be classified as follows:
General defects common to all casting processes Defects related to sand casting process
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Source: Groover
Casting Defect
Micro Defects q Gas Porosity q Microshrinkage Porosity or microporosity q Inclusions
Inclusions
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FIGURE 5.37 (a) Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings. Note that sharp corners are avoided to reduce stress concentrations; (b, c, d) examples of designs showing the importance of maintaining uniform cross-sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.
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Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws Dimensional measurements to insure that tolerances have been met Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned with quality of cast metal
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FIGURE 5.38 Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings. Source: Courtesy of The North American Die Casting Association.
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Draft Guidelines:
In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates removal of pattern from mold
Draft = 1 for sand casting
In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in removal of the part from the mold
Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes
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Core Elimination
q
Figure 11.25 Design change to eliminate the need for using a core: (a) original design, and (b) redesign.
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Source: Groover
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Machining Allowances:
Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve the required dimensions and part features Additional material, called the machining allowance, is left on the casting in those surfaces where machining is necessary Typical machining allowances for sand castings are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)
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The defects caused by shrinkage vary with the type of alloy. This can be explained with the adjoining figure 1. All alloys exhibit a large shrinkage volume.
(a) Directionally solidifying alloys cause large shrinkage voids. (b) An eutectic type alloy causes shrinkage depression. (c) An Equiaxed solidifying alloy produces shrinkage in the form of small voids and dispersed shrinkage.
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The figures above showcase various solidifications and their respective shrinkages. The shrinkage associated with each type of alloy changes with the riser and plate design. Consider the Fig 2(a) in this the alloy is a directionally solidifying type and by adding a taper to the plate the shrinkage has been forced from plate to the riser. In the case of eutectic alloy shown in Fig 2(b) there is shrinkage associated in the form of a depression in the riser. While in equiaxed alloy as shown in Fig 2(c), no change in the plate taper results in less shrinkage. In this case sections must be frozen at the same rate if possible.
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Provision of a riser near the heavier section in a casting results in reduction of shrinkage. Proper design of casting whereby lighter section follows a heavier section resulting in less shrinkage.
Proper design of casting helps in the reduction of shrinkage defects.
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Replacing sharp corners and angles with fillets (Fig.4) results in less defects associated with shrinkage along with a reduction in stresses caused due to thermal stress concentrations.
Providing fillets and taper helps in Reduction of thermal stresses near joints.
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Mechanical stresses are induced in a casting on cooling. The solidification process in metals always proceeds from the mold face to the center of the casting. Sharp corners and angles cause higher stresses and hence rounding of corners is suggested in the Figure
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The design engineer must take into consideration the cooling curves for various junction designs. The best casting design would entail bringing the minimum number of sections and also by avoiding acute angles along with large fillets.
Source: Schrader & Elshennawy
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Slag/Dross These are synonyms meaning refuse from melting of metals. Although slag is usually referred with higher melting point metals and dross with lower melting point metals. Various metals have varying tendencies for the formation of slag/dross. This makes it critical in choosing the right alloy for the casting. Not necessarily choosing the alloy which causes less slag/dross but by choosing the alloy keeping in mind the application.
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Pouring Temperature
q
Pouring temperature becomes a critical parameter in casting design due to the extremely high temperatures associated with molten metal. The designer must hence take into consideration problems associated with thermal degradation of the mold and formation of hot spots.
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Table 2 courtesy Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook provides the design engineer with approximate pouring temperatures which would result in the least amount of thermal abuse. The pouring temperatures would also be affected with the type of mold material, eg: Only titanium alloys are poured in graphite molds.
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Section Thicknesses
Due to variable cooling rates sections designed should be as uniform in thickness as possible. Non uniform sections would cause defects in the casting due to the variable cooling rates. Chills can be provided to counteract this phenomenon
Source: Schrader & Elshennawy
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Cooling rates of inner portions are much slower compared to outer surfaces. This makes it necessary to avoid as far as possible sharp angles and corners. A good rule of thumb is to reduce the inner sections to 9/10th the thickness of the outer walls.
Source: Schrader & Elshennawy
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For economy purposes the radius of the inner cylinder should be bigger than the wall thickness. As in in the Figure since the inner radius is much smaller it is advisable to cast it as a solid and to then drill the required hole.
Inner cylinder should be bigger than the casting wall thickness. Source: Schrader & Elshennawy
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Since ribs are designed to increase stiffness and for weight reduction. So if the ribs are designed with less depth or are widely spaced they become redundant. Thickness of the ribs should be 80% of casting thickness and the ribs should be rounded at the edges and filleted correctly.
Source: Schrader & Elshennawy
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Rib Design
Design of complex ribbing should be avoided where necessary due to simplification in casting process on the whole. If the casting wall itself can provide the necessary stiffness then omission of ribs is recommended.
Source: Schrader & Elshennawy
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Since bosses and pads increase the metal thickness this entail results in hot spots in the casting requiring the presence of chills etc. Hence it is recommended to not use these elements where possible.
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As is the case with junction design the design of bosses should be such that they seamlessly mate with the casting with the help of proper tapers and allowances as in the Figure. Table 3 gives an approximate reference guide for the heights of bosses.
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Redundancies
By providing a recess in the above casting. Cost becomes a factor due to the need for a core. This can be reduced if the casting can be done solid without the recess. So the design engineer must work closely in minimizing the complexities involved in the casting.
Source: Schrader & Elshennawy
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