Lecture 1

BY
Prof. R. P. Khare

TA ZC 232
ENGINEERING
MEASUREMENTS
TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Objectives of the Course
To learn the basic concepts behind
various instruments and their operations
Be in a position to apply various ideas and
concepts of measurement to problems
encountered in the work environment.
To understand how to analyze experimental
data.
To know how to reduce the effects of
experimental errors in the measurements.

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
INTRODUCTION

Why measurements?

Theory guides, experiments decide.
In past, emphasis was on theoretical analysis
and design which were based on trial and error
approach with very little of analytical input.
This approach is not always feasible, e.g.,
design and development of a rocket engine.


TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
A better approach is:
An optimum blending of Theory and
Experiments.
Constant evaluation of experimental data and
comparison with theoretical estimates.
Formulation of new theories based on
experimental results, guiding further experiments
and hence improvements in the design.
Today, experimental methods have become more
sophisticated and research involves a combination
of analytical and experimental work.
Actually, physical experimentation is the ultimate
test of most of the theories.

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Importance of Measurement
Techniques
Good and accurate measurements of
physical variables, say, temperature, flow
rate, etc., help in better control of these
variables.
Careful planning of experiments is must
for obtaining accurate and meaningful
data.
Requirements: Great care and patience!

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
BASIC CONCEPTS

Static Terms and Characteristics
Readability and Least count
Range and Span
Sensitivity
Hysteresis
Accuracy, Error and Correction
Precision
Threshold and Resolution

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Readability
Closeness with which the scale of an
instrument may be read. For example, a 12-in-
scale gives higher readability than a 6-in-scale.
Least Count
Smallest difference between two indications
that can be detected on the instrument scale.

Both readability and least count are dependent
on scale length, spacing of graduations, size and
parallax effects as shown in the next slide.

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Range
Range of an instrument is specified by lower
and upper limits in which it is designed to
operate
Span
Span represents the algebraic differences
between the upper and lower range values of
the instruments

For Example: Range: -10
o
C to 80
o
C; Span: 90
o
C
Range: 0 volt to 75 volt; Span: 75
TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Sensitivity
Change in output signal for a change in the
physical parameter being measured
It may be defined as the ratio of the response
(i.e. output signal) to the magnitude of the
quantity being measured (i.e. input signal).
Hence, static sensitivity,

K=

signal input of Change
signal output of Change


TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
HYSTERESIS

Difference in readings depending on whether the
value of the measured quantity is approached from
above or below.
Maximum difference is frequently specified as a
percentage of full scale

Hysteresis may be because of irreversible
phenomenon, such as:
Mechanical friction
Magnetic effect
Elastic deformation
Thermal effects
Slack motion in bearings and gears
While hysteresis is considered a negative quality of
the measuring instrument, it is useful in a making
memory device.

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements

Hysteresis Loop

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Accuracy, Error and Correction
Accuracy of an instrument is defined as the
closeness of the instrument output to the true
value of the measured quantity (i.e. input)
It depends upon intrinsic accuracy of the
instrument itself, variation of the signal being
measured, accuracy of the observer etc. e.g.
Accuracy of the micrometer
Accuracy may be specified either as the %age of
the true value or %age of the full scale deflection
Error (E
s
) is the difference between the measured
value (V
m
) and the true value (V
t
) of the quantity.
E
s
= V
m
V
t
Error may be positive or negative
Correction (C
s
) is defined as the difference
between the true value and the measured value of
a quantity
C
s
= V
t
-

V
m
= -E
s


TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Precision
Ability of an instrument
to reproduce a certain
reading with a given
accuracy.
It represents degree of
agreement with a group of
measurement of the same
measured quantity made
with same instrument and
observer and also under
same conditions.
Possible to have high
precision with poor
accuracy, but no accuracy
with low precision.

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Threshold and Resolution
These terms are defined as the smallest
increments in the measured value which can be
detected with certainty by an instrument.
Threshold represents the smallest increments
in the measured value from zero which can be
detected with certainty by an instrument.
If the increment is from non-zero, then this
increment is termed as the resolution.

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Calibration
A process of determining the accuracy of an
instrument.
It establishes the relationship of an
instrument's measurement with the value
provided by a standard.
When that relationship is known, the
instrument may then be adjusted (calibrated)
for the best accuracy.

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Static and Dynamic Measurement

Static measurement of a physical quantity is
performed when the quantity is not changing
with time OR when the ample time is available
for the measurement system to reach steady
state. E.g. Deflection of a beam under a
constant load.
A dynamic measurement of a physical
quantity is required when the quantity
changes with time. E.g. Beam set in vibration
will have deflection varying with time

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
DYNAMIC MEASUREMENT
A system may be described in terms of a general variable
x(t) written in differential equation form as






Where F(t) is some forcing function imposed on the system.
The order of the system is designated by the order of the
differential equation

) ( ....... ..........
0 1
1
1
1
t F x a
dt
dx
a
dt
x d
a
dt
x d
a
n
n
n
n
n
n
= + + +

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements

Zero Order System:
An output which is proportional to the input at
all times in accordance with the equation

a
0
x = F(t)
In this system the system variable x(t) will track
the input forcing function instantly by some
constant value i.e.
x= (1/a
0
) F(t)
Where 1/a
0
= static sensitivity of the system

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
First Order System
An output which is given by a non-homogeneous first
order linear differential equation:


The ratio a
1
/a
0
, having dimension of time, is called time
constant of the system
If F(t) = 0, t<=0 and F(t) = A (a sudden constant step input) for
t>0 along with initial condition, x = x
0
at t = 0
Then:

(1 )
0 0
1
) (
a
t F
x
dt
dx
a
a
= +
t
t
e
a
A
x
a
A
t x

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
0
0
0
) (
0
1
,
a
a
Where = t
TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
First Order System Contd
In equation (1), the steady state response is the first
term on the right or the value of x after a long time.
And the second term, involving the exponential decay
term, represents the transient response of the system
Designating the steady state value as , eq. (1) can
be written as:


Time Constant: If x
0
=0 and t = , then the value of x(t) will
have responded to 63.2 % of the step input, so the time
constant is called the time to achieve 63% of the step
input.

t
t
e
x x
x t x

0
) (
TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements

x
First Order System (Cont)
Rise Time: It is time required to achieve a response of
90 % of the step input. This requires:




A response is usually assumed to be complete after 5 t
since [1-exp (-5)] = 0.993
Note: Systems which exhibit first order behaviour
usually involve storage and dissipation capabilities,
such as, an electric capacitor discharging through a
resistor and a hot block allowed to cool in a room etc.

t
t
303 . 2
, 1 . 0
=
=

t
OR e
t
TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Second Order System

An output which is given by a non-homogeneous
second order linear differential equation:

) (
0
1
1
2
2
2
t F x a
dt
dx
a
dt
x d
a = + +
TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements
Response of System to a Sudden
Change in Input
unit step function
F(t) = 0 for t < 0, and F(t) = A for t > 0 with A=1



First Order System: x(t) = A/a
0
+ [x
0
- A/a
0
]exp(-t/t).

TA ZC 232 Engineering Measurements