• STRUKTUR DAN KOMPOSISI KROMOSOM / CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION • PEREPLIKAAN DNA / DNA REPLICATION • SINTESIS PROTEIN / PROTEIN SYNTHESIS • PENGAWALATURAN GEN / GENE REGULATION • MUTASI PERINGKAT DNA DAN KROMOSOM / DNA AND CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION • STRUKTUR HALUS GEN / GENE FINE STRUCTURE • PERWARISAN LUAR NUKLEUS / EXTRANUCLEAR INHERITANCE • PENGENALAN KEPADA KEJURUTERAAN GENETIK / INTRODUCTION TO GENETIC ENGINEERING GENETIC MATERIAL - INTRODUCTION
Earlier thought – Protein is the genetic
material • Majority of cell content is protein - > 50% of dry weight
• Discovery of nuclein (Miescher – 1868)
- contains P but no S, different from protein - tetranucleotide hypothesis (Levene – 1910) - too simple – not a big enough variation (1:1:1:1) - proven wrong by Chargaff (1940’s)
• Active research at the time
- heredity and mutation Genetic material should have the ability to:
- store information
- pass the information to the offspring
- dissipate the information when needed
- vary via mutation
Experiments Leading to the Discovery that DNA and RNA are the Genetic Material
A. Direct evidence in prokaryote:
1. Frederick Griffith (1927) – transformation
2. Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty (1944) – enzyme digestion and transformation 3. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase (1952) – reproduction of phage T2 during infection of E. coli 4. Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat and B. Singer (1957) - TMV 5. John Spizezen dan Dean Fraser (1957) – initiate phage infection with disrupted T2 particles on bacterial spheroplast 6. George Guthrie dan Robert Sinsheimer (1960) – transfection of E. coli spheroplast with purified DNA resulted in production of complete ΦX-174 bacteriophages B. Direct evidence in eukaryote:
1. Recombinant DNA Technology – expression of eukaryotic
genes in bacteria
2. Transgenic animals – human β-globin gene in fertilised
mice egg, shown to be maintained in adult mice tissue and can be inherited to the mice progeny
C. Indirect evidence in eukaryote and prokaryote:
1. Correlation between ploidy level of cells the amount of
DNA present (number of chromosomes)
2. Presence of DNA in organelles
3. Mutagenesis - absorption vs action spectrums CIRI-CIRI BAHAN GENETIK
1. Keupayaan menyimpan maklumat
- kestabilan fizikal dan kimia - DNA vs RNA - keadaan berheliks - molekul hidrofobik - selain timina yang membentuk urasil melalui pendeaminan
9. Keupayaan untuk memperturunkan/mewariskan maklumat
- proses pereplikaan - meiosis 3. Keupayaan untuk menyebarkan maklumat bila-bila perlu
- melalui pengekspresan gen
- isyarat permulaan, penamatan dan berapa amaun perlu - jujukan asid amino dalam protein
4. Keupayaan bervariasi melalui mutasi (dua mekanisme
utama)
- pertukaran kimia ke atas bes-bes yang mewujudkan sifat
pengikatan hidrogen baru dan menyebabkan bes baru hadir dalam molekul yang baru direplikakan - kesilapan pereplikaan di mana bes-bes salah atau bes berlebihan/berkurangan disisipkan ke dalam molekul baru