Tonicity

The membrane of RBCs is:

& Permeable to H+, OH-, urea and ammonium salts.

& Slightly permeable to glucose and amino acids.

& Impermeable or nearly so to Na+, K+, Ca2+ and large
molecules such as hemoglobin.
Tonicity is determined by the response of a cell when it is
placed in a solution.
The response of RBCs when they are placed in three
different types of solutions.
RBCs are convenient to use because they can be easily
isolated and observed.
 Tonicity (continue)
 1) If the volume of the RBC stays the same when added to a
particular solution, the solution is said to be isotonic
 2) When the cell is placed in a hypertonic solution
Water diffuses out of the cell till equilibrium is reached.
Shrinking or crenation of RBCs takes place and they may be
die. This condition is called plasmolysis.
35–85
 3) When the cell is placed in a hypotonic solution

Water diffuses into

the cell till
equilibrium is
established.
The cell causes it to
swell and often burst.
The bursting of cells
is called cytolysis.
 Hemolysis
# It is the breakage of the RBC’s membrane, causing the
release of the hemoglobin and other internal components
into the plasma.
In vivo hemolysis, which can be caused by a large number of
conditions, can lead to anemia. Anemias caused by in vivo
hemolysis are collectively called hemolytic anemias.
What are the causes of hemolysis?.
1- Dilute acids and alkalies and bile salts.
2- Fat solvents e.g. either, chloroform, benzene and alcohols
(by dissolving the lipid constituents of the cell membrane).
3- Snake venoms (due to specific substances called
hemolysins).

The copra venom contains lacithinase

lecithin and lysolecithin and
cephalin lysocephalin
 Hemolysis (continue)
4- Foreign blood is injected into the body of an animal & bacterial
infections.
5- Extreme temperatures.
6- Transfer of blood.

7- Bile pigments.
Bile pigments Partial retention in the plasma

staining of the skin and mucous membrane by a

yellowish color (as in hemolytic jaundice)

* Hhemosiderin may be formed in excessive

amounts and deposited in the spleen and liver.
* Hb can not be converted into bile pigments as
rapidly as it is liberated, as in severe malaria,
* Hemoglobin-urea occurs (appearance of Hb in the
urine) which in turned into brown methemoglobin.
 Erythropoiesis (Production of RBCs)
The regulation and production of RBCs is called erythropoesis.
Hematopoietic organs:
1- Yolk sac produce RBCs during the first several weeks of
the embryonic life.
2- Liver as well as to some extent by the spleen and lymph
nodes produce RBCs through the middle trimester of
gestation.

3- bone marrow produce RBCs later and following birth.

Notes:
@ From about the age of 20 years when the bones cease
to grow, most RBCs are produced in bone marrow of ribs,
sternum, pelvis and the vertebrae. At the same time the
bone marrow of long bones becomes fatty.
@ Hematologic diseases can induce erythropoiesis once
again in the long bones, liver, spleen and even lymph
nodes.
 Erythropoiesis (continue)
The mechanism of erythropoesis occurs as follows:

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synthesize
 Controls of erythropoesis (RBCs concentration)

1) Erythropoietin released by the kidneys

Low O2 Kidney releases erythropoietin

Erythropoiesis in RBCs are RBCs are

the red bone marrow released released
 Controls of erythropoesis (continue)
NOTES
The gene encoding EPO was recently cloned and through
recombinant DNA technology, EPO is now produced in large
quantities and is available for clinical uses to enhance
erythrocyte production as in cases of:
1- Prior to surgery as a way to decrease the volume of
transfused donor blood required.
2- Following chemotherapy for cancer. Chemotherapy targets
are the fast growing cells. Cancer cells are fast-growing and
therefore die, but erythrocytes, which are also fast growing
cells, suffer decline following chemotherapy.

Testosterone enhances erythropoietin.

2- Erythrocyte destruction.
The RBCs count is restored to normal values about one
month after severe hemorrhage.
 Controls of erythropoesis (continue)
3- The presence of iron plays an important role in
erythropoesis and their normal maturation .

4- many of vitamins such as vit. B12, vit. B6, folic acid. Vit. C
are essential for the maturation of RBCs from its immature
erythroblast.

5- Thyroid and corticoid hormones stimulate erythropoesis.

6- Trace elements such as cobalt, copper are essential to the

normal rate of RBCs maturation.
‫الى اللقـــــاء القــــــــادم‬