Chapter 03

Chapter 3: Relations and Posets
Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications
Learning Objectives
Learn about relations and their basic properties Explore equivalence relations Become aware of closures
Learn about posets

Explore how relations are used in the design of relational databases
Relations
Relations are a natural way to associate objects of various sets
Relations
R can be described in Roster form Set-builder form
Relations
Arrow Diagram
Write the elements of A in one column Write the elements B in another column Draw an arrow from an element, a, of A to an element, b, of B, if (a ,b) R Here, A = {2,3,5} and B = {7,10,12,30} and R from A into B is defined as follows: For all a A and b B, a R b if and only if a divides b
The symbol (called an arrow) represents the relation R

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Relations
Relations
Directed Graph
Let R be a relation on a finite set A Describe R pictorially as follows:
For each element of A , draw a small or big dot and label the dot by the corresponding element of A Draw an arrow from a dot labeled a , to another dot labeled, b , if a R b .
Resulting pictorial representation of R is called the directed graph representation of the relation R
Relations
Relations
Directed graph (Digraph) representation of R
Each dot is called a vertex If a vertex is labeled, a, then it is also called vertex
a
An arc from a vertex labeled a, to another vertex, b is called a directed edge, or directed arc from a to b
The ordered pair (A , R) a directed graph, or digraph, of the relation R, where each element of A is a called a vertex of the digraph
Relations
Directed graph (Digraph) representation of R (Continued)
For vertices a and b , if a R b, a is adjacent to b and b is adjacent from a
Because (a, a) R, an arc from a to a is drawn; because (a, b) R, an arc is drawn from a to b. Similarly, arcs are drawn from b to b, b to c , b to a, b to d, and c to d For an element a A such that (a, a) R, a directed edge is drawn from a to a. Such a directed edge is called a loop at vertex a
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Relations
Directed graph (Digraph) representation of R (Continued)
Position of each vertex is not important
In the digraph of a relation R, there is a directed edge or arc from a vertex a to a vertex b if and only if a R b Let A ={a ,b ,c ,d} and let R be the relation defined by the following set:
R = {(a ,a ), (a ,b ), (b ,b ), (b ,c ), (b ,a ), (b ,d ), (c ,d )}
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Relations
Domain and Range of the Relation
Let R be a relation from a set A into a set B. Then R A x B. The elements of the relation R tell which element of A is R-related to which element of B
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Relations
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {p, q, r}. Let R = {(1, q), (2, r ), (3, q), (4, p)}. Then R1 = {(q, 1), (r , 2), (q, 3), (p, 4)}
To find R1, just reverse the directions of the arrows D(R) = {1, 2, 3, 4} = Im(R1), Im(R) = {p, q, r} = D(R1)
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Relations
Constructing New Relations from Existing Relations
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Relations
Example: Consider the relations R and S as given in Figure 3.7. The composition S R is given by Figure 3.8.
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Relations
Example 3.1.26 continued
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Relations
Consider the relation R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 4), (4, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)} on the set S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The digraph is divided into three distinct blocks. From these blocks the subsets {1, 4}, {2, 3}, and {5} are formed. These subsets are pairwise disjoint, and their union is S. A partition of a nonempty set S is a division of S into nonintersecting nonempty subsets. 37
Relations
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Relations
Example: Let A denote the set of the lowercase English alphabet. Let B be the set of lowercase consonants and C be the set of lowercase vowels. Then B and C are nonempty, B C = , and A = B C. Thus, {B, C} is a partition of A. Let A be a set and let {A1, A2, A3, A4, A5} be a partition of A. Corresponding to this partition, a Venn diagram, can be drawn, Figure 3.13
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Relations
Let A = {a, b, c , d, e , f , g , h, i, j }. Let R be a relation on A such that the digraph of R is as shown in Figure 3.14. Then a, b, c , d, e , f , c , g is a directed walk in R as a R b,b R c ,c R d ,d R e , e R f , f R c , c R g . Similarly, a, b, c , g is also a directed walk in R. In the walk a, b, c , d, e , f , c , g , the internal vertices are b, c , d, e , f , and c , which are not distinct as c repeats. this walk is not a path. In the walk a, b, c , g , the internal vertices are b and c , which are distinct. Therefore, the walk a, b, c, g is a path.
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Partially Ordered Sets
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Digraphs of Posets Because any partial order is also a relation, a digraph representation of partial order may be given. Example: On the set S = {a, b, c}, consider the relation R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c , c ), (a, b)}. From the directed graph it follows that the given relation is reflexive and transitive. This relation is also antisymmetric because there is a directed edge from a to b, but there is no directed edge from b to a. Again, in the graph there are two distinct vertices a and c such that there are no directed edges from a to c and from c to a.
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Digraphs of Posets
Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}. Consider the divisibility relation on S, which is a partial order
A digraph of this poset is as shown in Figure 3.20
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Closed Path
On the set S = {a, b, c } consider the relation R = {(a, a), (b, b), (c , c ), (a, b), (b, c ), (c , a)} The digraph of this relation is given in Figure 3.21 In this digraph, a, b, c , a form a closed path. Hence, the given relation is not a partial order relation
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Hasse Diagram
Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Then P(S) = {, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 3}, S} Now (P(S),) is a poset, where denotes the set inclusion relation. The poset diagram of (P(S),) is shown in Figure 3.22
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Hasse Diagram
Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Then P(S) = {, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {2, 3}, {1, 3}, S} (P(S),) is a poset, where denotes the set inclusion relation Draw the digraph of this inclusion relation (see Figure 3.23). Place the vertex A above vertex B if B A. Now follow steps (2), (3), and (4)
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Hasse Diagram Consider the poset (S,), where S = {2, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20} and the partial order is the divisibility relation In this poset, there is no element b S such that b 5 and b divides 5. (That is, 5 is not divisible by any other element of S except 5). Hence, 5 is a minimal element. Similarly, 2 is a minimal element
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Hasse Diagram
10 is not a minimal element because 2 S and 2 divides 10. That is, there exists an element b S such that b < 10. Similarly, 4, 15, and 20 are not minimal elements
2 and 5 are the only minimal elements of this poset. Notice that 2 does not divide 5. Therefore, it is not true that 2 b, for all b S, and so 2 is not a least element in (S,). Similarly, 5 is not a least element. This poset has no least element
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Figure 3.24

Hasse Diagram
There is no element b S such that b 15, b > 15, and 15 divides b. That is, there is no element b S such that 15 < b. Thus, 15 is a maximal element. Similarly, 20 is a maximal element. 10 is not a maximal element because 20 S and 10 divides 20. That is, there exists an element b S such that 10 < b. Similarly, 4 is not a maximal element.
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Figure 3.24
Hasse Diagram
20 and 15 are the only maximal elements of this poset 10 does not divide 15, hence it is not true that b 15, for all b S, and so 15 is not a greatest element in (S,)
This poset has no greatest element

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Non-distributive Lattice
Because a (b c ) = a 1 = a = 0 = 0 0 = (a b) (a c ), this is not a distributive lattice
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Complement
Let D30 denote the set of all positive divisors of 30. Then D30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}. (D30,) is a poset where a b if and only if a divides b ( is the divisibility relation) D30,) is a poset where a b if and only if a divides b ( is the divisibility relation). Because 1 divides all elements of D30, it follows that 1 m, for all m D30. Therefore, 1 is the least element of this poset.
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Complement
Let a, b D30. Let d = gcd{a, b} and m = lcm{a, b}. Now d | a and d | b. Hence, d a and d b. This shows that d is a lower bound of {a, b}. Let c D30 and c a, c b. This shows that d is a lower bound of {a, b}. Let c D30 and c a, c b. Then, c | a and c | b and because d = gcd{a, b}, it follows that c | d, so c d. Thus, d = glb{a, b}.
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Complement
Because all the positive divisors of a, b are also divisors of 30, d D30, so d = a b It can be shown that m D30 and m = a b Hence, (D30,) is a lattice with the least element integer 1 and the greatest element 30
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Complement
For any element a D30, (30/a) D30 Using the properties of gcd and lcm, it can be shown that a (30/a) = 1 and a (30/a) = 30 10 (30/10) = gcd{10, 3} = 1 and 10 (30/10) = lcm{10, 3} = 30
Hence, 3 is a complement of 10 in this lattice

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Application: Relational Database

A database is a shared and integrated computer structure that stores
End-user data; i.e., raw facts that are of interest to the end user;
Metadata, i.e., data about data through which data are integrated A database can be thought of as a well-organized electronic file cabinet whose contents are managed by software known as a database management system; that is, a collection of programs to manage the data and control the accessibility of the data
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In a relational database system, tables are considered as relations
A table is an n-ary relation, where n is the number of columns in the tables

The headings of the columns of a table are called attributes, or fields, and each row is called a record The domain of a field is the set of all (possible) elements in that column
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Each entry in the ID column uniquely identifies the row containing that ID
Such a field is called a primary key Sometimes, a primary key may consist of more than one field
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Structured Query Language (SQL)
Information from a database is retrieved via a query, which is a request to the database for some information A relational database management system provides a standard language, called structured query language (SQL) A relational database management system provides a standard language, called structured query language (SQL)
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Structured Query Language (SQL)
An SQL contains commands to create tables, insert data into tables, update tables, delete tables, etc. Once the tables are created, commands can be used to manipulate data into those tables. The most commonly used command for this purpose is the select command. The select command allows the user to do the following:
Specify what information is to be retrieved and from which tables. Specify conditions to retrieve the data in a specific form. Specify how the retrieved data are to be displayed.
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Chapter 3: Relations and Posets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Learn about posets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

R can be described in Roster form Set-builder form

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

The symbol (called an arrow) represents the relation R

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Partially Ordered Sets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Partially Ordered Sets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Partially Ordered Sets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Partially Ordered Sets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Partially Ordered Sets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Partially Ordered Sets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Partially Ordered Sets

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications

Partially Ordered Sets

Partially Ordered Sets

A digraph of this poset is as shown in Figure 3.20

Discrete Mathematical Structures: Theory and Applications