Observation is the process by which facts become data

Observation is a primary method of collecting data by human, mechanical, electrical or electronic means.

Definition Observation is a systematic process of recording behavioral patterns of people, objects, and occurrences as they happen.
Features The observation is planned systematically. No Questioning or communicating with people is needed. Researchers who use this method either witness or record information while watching events take place or take advantage of some tracking system.

Observation techniques can be part of qualitative research as well as quantitative research techniques. Qualitative observation is largely unstructured observation Observer immerses himself/herself It relies on the skills of the observer to recognize, interpret behaviors participant

record, and

The researcher can learn the most by participating and/or being immersed in a research situation. Quantitative observation is structured Observers are trained to count, record, and summarize data about pre-determined behaviors

Better suited to program evaluation

In quantitative research, the researcher is ideally an objective observer who neither participates in nor influences what is being studied.

Observational studies gather a wide variety of information about behavior. Observation studies emphasize and allow for the systematic recording of non-verbal behavior. For example: Toy manufacturers such as Fisher Price use the observation technique because children often cannot express their reactions to products. By observing children at play with a proposed toy or game, marketing researchers may be able to identify the elements of a potentially successful product. Researchers may observe play to answer questions like: How long does the childs attention stay with the product? Does the child put the toy down after two minutes or twenty minutes? Are the childs peers equally interested in the toy?

Following table lists different kinds of observational phenomenon.

Phenomenon
Physical action Verbal behavior Expressive behavior

Example
A shoppers movement pattern in a store Statements made by airline travelers while waiting in line Facial expression, tones of voices, and other forms of body language How close visitors at an art museum stand to paintings How long fast-food customers wait for their orders to be served What brand-name items are stored in consumers pantries Bar codes on product packages

Spatial relations and locations Temporal patterns

Physical objects Verbal and pictorial records

Problems associated
Observation

research cannot provide an explanation of why a behavior occurred or what actions were intended.
Another

limitation is that the observation period is generally short. Observing behavior patterns that occur over a period of several days or weeks generally is too costly or even impossible.

Marketing researchers can observe people, objects, events, or other phenomena using either human observers or machine designed for specific observations tasks. Human observation is generally unobtrusive i.e. no communication takes place with the respondent. Example: Rather than asking customers how much time they spend shopping in the store, a supermarket manager might observe and record the intervals between when shoppers enter and leave the store. Visible observation - A situation in which an observers presence is known to the subject. Hidden (Unobtrusive) observation - A situation in which a subject is unaware that observation is taking place. This type of observation minimises respondent error. The main problem with unobtrusive measures, however, is ethical. Issues involving informed consent and invasion of privacy are paramount here.

Advantages
Although often costly and time-consuming, observation methods help to avoid the problems of relying solely on self-report measures.

what they actually do rather than what they say actual, not self reporting behavior doesnt rely on memory or willingness real-time research - at time of occurrence avoids bias good for observing children

Disadvantages
Observation does not help understand what is happening within a person (e.g. emotions, cognitions and perceptions).

cannot infer what caused behavior public behavior only limited future projection time consuming (infrequent actions) labor intensive expensive

Type of Observational Method

Naturalistic Observation

Advantages
Particularly good for observing specific subjects. Provides ecologically valid recordings of natural behaviour. Spontaneous behaviours are more likely to happen.

Disadvantages
Ethics: Where research is undisclosed consent will not be obtained, where consent is not obtained details may be used which infringe confidentiality.

Structured Observation

Allows control of extraneous variables. Reliability of results can be tested by repeating the study. Provides a safe environment to study contentious concepts such as infant attachment.

The implementation of controls may have an effect on behaviour. Lack of ecological validity. Observer effect. Observer bias.

Unstructured Observation

Gives a broad overview of a situation.

Useful where situation/subject matter to be studied is unclear. Gives an "insiders" view. Behaviours are less prone to misinterpretation because researcher was a participant. Opportunity for researcher to become an "accepted" part of the environment.

Only really appropriate as a "first step" to give an overview of a situation / concept / idea.

Participant Observation

Observer effect. Possible lack of objectivity on the part of the observer.

Non-Participant Observation Avoidance of observer effect

Observer is detached from situation so relies on their perception which may be inaccurate

Observation of Human behavior

Direct observation
This

observation can produce detailed records of what people actually do during an event. The observer plays a passive role, making no manipulations in the situation, instead merely record what occurs. Example: Recording traffic counts or observing the direction of traffic flows within a supermarket can help managers design store layouts that maximize the exposure of departments that sell impulse goods.

Two commonly used types of direct observations

Continuous

Monitoring Time Allocation

Errors associated
The

observer may may record events subjectively. Accuracy may suffer if the observer does not record every detail that describes the persons, objects, and events in a given situation. Wrong interpretation of observation data.

Ethical Issues in the observation of humans

Hidden

privacy. Sometimes contrived observation is viewed as entrapment i.e. to deceive or trick into difficulty. The problem is of balancing values.

observation raises the issue of the respondents right to

For Instance:
If the researcher obtains permission to observe someone, the subject may not act naturally.

Few aspects which can help address this problem are: Is the behavior being observed commonly performed in public where it is expected that others can observe the behavior?
Is

the behavior performed in a setting in which the anonymity of the person being observed is assured?
Has

the person agreed to be observed?

Content analysis
Content

analysis is an observation technique used to analyze written material into meaningful units, using carefully applied rules. It is defined as the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication. It includes observation as well as analysis. The unit of analysis may be words, characters, themes, space and time measures, or topics.
For example: content analysis of advertisements might evaluate their use of words, themes, characters, or space and time relationships.

In many situations, the primary and sometimes the only means of observation is mechanical rather than human. Video cameras, traffic counters, and other machines help observe and record behavior. The techniques used are:
Television

monitoring Monitoring Website Traffic Scanner-Based Research

Television monitoring
ACNielsens television monitoring system for estimating national television audiences - the best known marketing research project involving mechanical observation and computerised data collection.
The Nielsen Media research uses a computer panel and a monitoring device called a PeopleMeter to obtain ratings for television programs nationwide. This meter gathers data on what each television in a household is playing and who is watching it at the time.

Monitoring Website Traffic

Most

organizations record the level of activity at their websites. They may count the number of hits (mouse clicks on a single page of a website).
Page

views more conservatively indicate how many users visit each individual page on the website and may also be used to track the path or sequence of pages that each visitor follows.

Scanner-Based Research
This

technology allows researchers to investigate questions that are demographically or promotionally specific.
Scanner

research has investigated the different ways consumers respond to price promotions and the effects of those differences on a promotions profitability.

Marketing researchers use different mechanical devices to evaluate consumers Physical and Physiological reactions to advertisement, packaging etc. The researchers use these means when they believe: Consumers are unaware of their own reactions to the stimuli, or That consumers will not provide honest responses. Major categories of mechanical devices used are: Eye-tracking monitor Pupilometers Psychogalvanometers Voice-pitch analysers

Eye-tracking

equipment records how the subject reads a print ad or views a television commercial and how much time is spent looking at various parts of the stimulus.
In

Physiological terms, the gaze movement of a viewers eye is measured with this instrument.
The

device track eye movements with invisible infrared light beams. The light reflects off the eye and the eyemovement data are recorded while another tiny video camera monitors which magazine page is being perused.
The

data are analysed by computer to determine which components in an ad were seen and which were overlooked.

Other physiological observation techniques are based on a common principle that: Adrenaline is released when the body is aroused. This hormone causes the heart to enlarge and to beat harder and faster. These changes increase the flow of blood to the fingers and toes. The blood vessels dilate, and perspiration increases, affecting the skins electrical conductivity. Other physical changes following the release of adrenaline include: Dilation of the pupils More frequent brain wave activity Higher skin temperature Faster breathing etc. Methods that measure these and other changes associated with arousal can apply to a variety of marketing questions, such as subjects reactions to advertising messages or product concepts.

Pupilometer Observes and records changes in the diameter of a subjects pupils. This method of research is based on the assumption that increased pupil size reflects positive attitudes toward and interest in the advertisement. Psychogalvanometer Measures galvanic skin response (GSR), a measure of involuntary changes in the electrical resistance of the skin. This device is based on the assumption that physiological changes, such as increased perspiration, accompany emotional reactions to advertisements, packages, and slogans. Excitement increases the bodys perspiration rate, which increases the electrical resistance of the skin. The test is an indicator of emotional arousal or tension.

Voice-pitch analyzers
A

relatively new physiological measurement technique that gauges emotional reactions as reflected in physiological changes in a persons voice. Abnormal frequencies in the voice caused by changes in the automatic nervous system are measured with sophisticated, audio adapted computer equipment. This technique, unlike other physiological devices, does not require the researcher to surround subjects with mazes of wires or equipment.

Problems with these devices

No

strong theoretical evidence supports the argument that such a physiological change is a valid measure of future sales, attitude change, or emotional response.
Another

problem is the calibration (sensitivity of measuring devices). Identifying arousal is one thing but precisely measuring levels of arousal is another.
Most The

of these devices are expensive.

subjects are placed in artificial settings, such as watching television in a laboratory rather than at home and they know they are being observed.

There are many different ways to design an observation study, depending on the objective of the study, the type of data being collected, and the resources available for the study. Following are five different features that you should consider when designing the ideal observation study for your project: Natural or Contrived Disguised vs. Non-disguised Observation Human vs. Mechanical Observation Direct vs. Indirect Observation Structured vs. Non-structured Observation

Natural

or Contrived

Conducting

the study in a natural setting essentially means that the observer is simply observing the subjects in their "real life" environments. Because the observer has no way of influencing what the subjects are doing, this method can be time consuming to gather the information. Alternatively, the data that is collected in a natural setting does have more accuracy in reflecting "real life" behavior rather than "contrived" behavior.
A

contrived setting is one where the specific situation being studied is created by the observer. The contrived setting offers the observer greater control over the gathering of data and specifically will enable to gather the information more quickly and efficiently. However, it may be questionable as to whether or not the data collected does truly reflect a "real life" situation.

Disguised
Disguised

vs. Non-disguised Observation

observation is made when subjects do not know they are being observed. Subjects tend to act more naturally and the data collected tends to reflect their true reactions. The primary concern with disguised observation is the ethical concern over recording behavioral information that would normally be private or not voluntarily revealed to a researcher. However, if the researcher is simply observing a subject's behavior in a public setting then by definition, their behavior is no longer private.
Non-disguised

observed. Using the non-disguised observation technique alone alleviates ethical concerns, however, since the subjects are aware that they are being watched, the advantages of using the observational technique are neutralized and a survey technique would be equally effective. There is one exception: the non-disguised approach offers the advantage of allowing the researcher to follow up the observations with a questionnaire in order to get deeper information about a subject's behavior.

observation takes place when the subjects know they are being

Human
Human

vs. Mechanical Observation:

observation is using human observers to collect data in the study.

Mechanical

observation involves using various types of machines to collect the data, which is then interpreted by researchers. The most commonly used and least expensive means of mechanically gathering data in an observation study is a video camera. A video camera offers a much more precise means of collecting data than what can simply be recorded by a human observer.

Direct

vs. Indirect Observation:

Direct observations involve looking at the actual behavior or occurrence rather than a result of that occurrence, which would be an indirect observation. For example, if one is interested in seeing how much candy was purchased by a particular neighbourhood, one could gather the information in one of the two following ways:
Direct

observation: observe customers in a store and count how many bags of candy they purchase. Indirect observation: look through trash cans on garbage day to see how many empty candy bags are in each trash bin Indirect observation tends to be used when the data cannot be gathered through direct means, or when gathering the data through direct observation tends to be too expensive.

Structured
Structured

vs. Non-structured Observation:

observations are made when the data that is being collected can be organized into clear categories or groups so that the observer can record the data by simply marking off or checking a category on an observation form.
Non-structured

observations are not looking for specific facts or actions, but rather are capturing everything that occurs.