COMPUTER

The "computer" is derived from the word "compute"which means to calculate. So a computer is normally considered to be a calculating device that can perform arithmetic and logical operations at a very fast speed. OR A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, processes it and gives results after that prosessing.

Electronic and Electrical difference

Electricals means your simple heating systems and motors where there is only physical work needed to build it for example fans, water heaters, pumps, boilers, motors, which have moving or heating parts in it, but in electronics its all about the micro chips, computer mother boards, televisions, air conditioners, processors, mobiles, signals amplification, reception and broadcasting of the same.etc.

Data Refers to the symbols that represent facts, objects,or ideas. Information The results of the computer storing data as bits and bytes; the words, numbers, sounds, and graphics. Processing Manipulation of the data in many ways.

Computer Characterstics High speed of operation: Reliable and accurate: Decision making: Storage: Automatic: Versatile: Obedient:

High speed of operation: A computer is a very high speed data processing machine capable of operating at electronic speeds. Most instruction in a computer are carried out in less than a million of a second. Speed of a computer can be specified in terms of number of

Reliable and accurate: Computers are reliable and they always produce accurate results although while working at high speeds. Instruction execution is carried out without any mistakes.

Decision making: Computer is capable of taking decision while choosing from many options. It can compare 2 states of operands, depending upon the results of comparison it can proceed to initiate actions.

Storage: Computer can store large amount of information and permit faster reference to the stored data in its memory. At any stage there would be no data loss or data corruption once it is stored.

Automatic: computer is an automatic machine that is once the program and data are loaded into its memory, the computer carry out the execution with no human intervention.

Versatile: Computer is becoming popular, because of its versatility i.e, it can be applied and used a variety of application; it can be used for general purpose simple calculations; At the same time the computer can be developed and employed in a

Obedient: Instructions are carried out obediently without any question or enquiries made by the computer. Because as such computer is not an intelligent machine but a programmable black box which has no common sense.

Part of computer Hardware Software Liveware Firmware

Hardware Includes the electronic and mechanical devices that process the data; refers to the computer as well as peripheral devices.

Software A computer program that tells the computer how to perform particular tasks.

Liveware live ware is just a program that lets you arrange your speaker setup and how laud each one will be it also lets you choose what the sound will sound like (ex. in a cave or on a mountain) it also give you the ability to change your voice but only if you have a

Firmware A software code written and saved within the read-only memory (ROM)

Hardware

The Input & Output Device:Input:Input unit is the device through which the data and instructions are fed to the computer example keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, etc.

Keyboard:Keyboard is an input device, similar as a typewriter face (QWERTY) this having many more keys. These keys are used to input data control cursor and pointer locations and to control dialogue with the computer.

Mouse:-

It is also input device and containing three click buttons for giving commands. It enables a user to pin and click at links icons or other images on a monitor by controlling the cursor movement.

Joystick A joystick is a pointing device with a vertical lever mounted on a base. It is mainly used for computer games and ultrasounds scanners in hospitals.

Scanner:

A scanner is a input device used to capture information, such as, photographs and documents on paper and translate the information into a raster (bitmap) computer image.

Output:A output unit is a device on which the result is shown for examples, monitor and printer.

Monitor:A monitor of computer is like a T.V. it is an output device. A CPU processes the data then if comes in this output device. It allows the user to see the output. There are different kinds of computers monitor, two main categories are; black and white and color

Speakers:You can use speakers on a multimedia machine to listen to the sound files, which can be audio, recorded by a microphone or audio CDs.

Printer:The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to input a picture, the keyboard cannot help us. Scanner is an optical device that can input any graphical chart or picture and display it back. The common optical scanning devices are Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR), Optical Mark

Dot-matrix printer Dot-matrix printers create characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon. Each pin makes a dot, and combinations of dots form characters and illustrations. Dot matrix printers are inexpensive and relatively faster than daisy wheel

Speed Given in characters per second (cps), the speed can vary from about 50 to over 500 cps. Most dot-matrix printers offer different speeds depending on the quality of print desired.

Print quality Determined by the number of pins (the mechanism) That prints the dots), it can vary from 9 to 24. the best dot-matrix printer (24 pins) can produce near letterquality type, although you can still see a difference if you look closely.

Ink-jet printer Ink-jet printers work by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper. Magnetized plates in the inks path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Ink-jet printers are capable of producing high quality print approaching to that produced by laser printers. A typical

In general, the price of inkjet printers is lower than that of laser printers. However, they are also considerably slower. Another draw-back of ink-jet printers is that they require a special type of ink that is apt to smudge on inexpensive copier paper.

Laser printer

Laser printer utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is transferred to the

System unit Case that holds the power supply, storage devices, and the circuit boards (including the motherboard).

C.P.U (Central Processing Unit):A C.P.U is a processing device that takes the command from input device, process it then give the on the monitor. It is also called the brain of the computer. CPU has a microchip that is installed on a motherboard. It performs the calculations and controls

Types Of Memory Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Storage Devices:The data is stored in storage devices for processing data as well for future references. There are two storage devices. primary storage device secondary storage device

Primary

RAM : Random Access Memory:- Ordinary memory Used for storing programs which are currently running and data which is being processed. This type of memory is volatile - it loses all its

Type Dynamic: Changes thru processing Static: Remains constant (power on)

ROM : Read Only Memory (preprogrammed):Non-volatile, with contents permanently etched into the memory chip at the manufacturing stage Used for example to hold the bootstrap loader, the program which runs as soon as the computer is switched on and instructs it to load the

Secondary Memory Cd- Compact Disk Drives Dvd------ Floppy Disk:

Cd- Compact Disk

The compact disk is also a portable storage device. You use a CD writer to store data on the compact disk. The data can be read using a CD drive.

DVD

Dvd known as "Digital Versatile Disc" or "Digital Video Disc," is an optical disc storage media format. Its main uses are video and data storage. Most DVDs are of the same dimensions as compact discs (CDs) but store more than six times as much data.

Floppy Disk:

It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. It is 3.5 inch in diameter. These come in single or double density and recorded on one or both surface or the diskette. The capacity of a high-density 3.5 inch floppy it is 1.44 mega bytes it is cheaper than any other storage devices and is

SOWTWARE

Application Software:

Application software is a subclass of computer software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly and thoroughly to a task that the user wishes to perform.

Types of Application Software: Word Processing Software: Allows users to create, edit a document. Example: MS Word, Word Pad etc. Spreadsheet Software: Allows users to create document and perform calculation. Example: Excel, Lotus1-2-3 etc.

Database Software: Allows users to store and retrieve vast amount of data. Example: MS Access, MySQL, Oracle etc. Presentation Graphic Software: Allows users to create visual presentation. Example: MS Power Point

Multimedia Software: Allows users to create image, audio, video etc. Example: Real Player, Media Player etc.

System Software:- System software is any computer software which manages and controls computer hardware so that application software can perform a task. Operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X or Linux, are prominent examples of

Operating System

Software Instructions for Computer Operating system is set of instructions loaded each time a computer is started Program is instructions loaded when needed

Roles of the operating system The operating system has various roles: Management of the random access memory: the operating system is responsible for managing the memory space allocated to each application and, where relevant, to each user. If there is insufficient physical memory, the operating

The virtual memory lets you run applications requiring more memory than there is available RAM on the system. However, this memory is a great deal slower.

Management of input/output: the operating system allows unification and control of access of programmes to material resources via drivers (also known as peripheral administrators or input/output administrators).

Management of execution of applications: the operating system is responsible for smooth execution of applications by allocating the resources required for them to operate. This means an application that is not responding correctly can be "killed".

Management of authorisations: the operating system is responsible for security relating to execution of programmes by guaranteeing that the resources are used only by programmes and users with the relevent authorisations. File management: the operating system manages

Information management: the operating system provides a certain number of indicators that can be used to diagnose the correct operation of the machine.

Types of operating system There are several types of operating system, defined according to whether they can simultaneously manage information measuring 16 bits , 32 bits, 64 bits or more.

SystemProgrammingSingle userMultiuserSingle taskMulti-taskDOS16 bitsX X Windows3.116/32 bitsX not pre-emptiveWindows95/98/Me32 bitsX cooperativeWindowsNT/200032 bits X pre-emptiveWindowsXP32/64 bits X pre-emptiveUnix / Linux32/64 bits X pre-emptiveMAC/OS X32 bits X pre-emptiveVMS32 bits X preemptive

Programming Language

You are aware with the term language. It is a system of communication between two persons. Some of the basic natural languages that we are familiar with are English, Hindi, Oriya, etc. These are the languages used to communicate among with your computer.

Specially developed so that are could pass your data and instructions to the computer to do specific job. You must have heard names like FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL, etc. these are called Programming Language.

Low level languages The term low level means closeness to the way in which the machine has been built. Low level languages are machine oriented and require extensive knowledge of computer hardware and its configuration.

High-level language You know that assembly language and machine language require extensive knowledge of computer hardware. To overcome this limitation, a user writes the instructions in English like sentences to perform the logic of the problem

Computer History ABACUS 4th Century B.C. The abacus, a simple counting aid, may have been invented in Babylonia (now Iraq) in the fourth century B.C. This device allows users to make computations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack.

BLAISE PASCAL (1623 - 1662) In 1642, the French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal invented a calculating device that would come to be called the "Adding Machine".

Originally called a "numerical wheel calculator" or the "Pascaline", Pascal's invention utilized a train of 8 moveable dials or cogs to add sums of up to 8 figures long. As one dial turned 10 notches - or a complete revolution - it mechanically turned the next

Pascal's mechanical Adding Machine automated the process of calculation. Although slow by modern standards, this machine did provide a fair degree of accuracy and speed.

Charles Babbage Born in 1791, Charles Babbage was an English mathematician and professor. In 1822, he persuaded the British government to finance his design to build a machine that would calculate tables for logarithms. With Charles Babbage's creation of the "Analytical

Howard Aiken (1900 - 1973) Aiken thought he could create a modern and functioning model of Babbage's Analytical Engine. He succeeded in securing a grant of 1 million dollars for his proposed Automatic Sequence Calculator; the Mark I for short. From IBM.

In 1944, the Mark I was "switched" on. Aiken's colossal machine spanned 51 feet in length and 8 feet in height. 500 meters of wiring were required to connect each component.

Howard Aiken (1900 - 1973)

The Mark I did transform Babbage's dream into reality and did succeed in putting IBM's name on the forefront of the burgeoning computer industry. From 1944 on, modern computers would forever be associated with digital intelligence.

ENIAC 1946 Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer Under the leadership of J. Presper Eckert (1919 - 1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907 1980) the team produced a machine that computed at speeds 1,000 times faster than the Mark I was capable

Using 18,00-19,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5 million soldered joints this massive instrument required the output of a small power station to operate it.

ENIAC 1946 It could do nuclear physics calculations (in two hours) which it would have taken 100 engineers a year to do by hand. The system's program could be changed by rewiring a panel.

ENIAC 1946

TRANSISTOR1948 In the laboratories of Bell Telephone, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley discovered the "transfer resistor"; later labelled the transistor.

Advantages: increased reliability 1/13 size of vacuum tubes consumed 1/20 of the electricity of vacuum tubes were a fraction of the cost

TRANSISTOR 1948 This tiny device had a huge impact on and extensive implications for modern computers. In 1956, the transistor won its creators the Noble Peace Prize for their invention.

ALTAIR 1975 The invention of the transistor made computers smaller, cheaper and more reliable. Therefore, the stage was set for the entrance of the computer into the domestic realm. In 1975, the age of personal computers commenced.

Under the leadership of Ed Roberts the Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Company (MITS) wanted to design a computer 'kit' for the home hobbyist.

ALTAIR 1975

Based on the Intel 8080 processor, capable of controlling 64 kilobyes of memory, the MITS Altair as the invention was later called - was debuted on the cover of the January edition of Popular Electronics magazine.

Presenting the Altair as an unassembled kit kept costs to a minimum. Therefore, the company was able to offer this model for only $395. Supply could not keep up with demand

ALTAIR 1975 ALTAIR FACTS: No Keyboard No Video Display No Storage Device

IBM (PC)1981 On August 12, 1981 IBM announced its own personal computer. Using the 16 bit Intel 8088 microprocessor, allowed for increased speed and huge amounts of memory. Unlike the Altair that was sold as unassembled computer

IBM (PC) 1981 To satisfy consumer appetites and to increase usability, IBM gave prototype IBM PCs to a number of major software companies. For the first time, small companies and individuals who never would have imagined owning a "personal"

MACINTOSH (1984) IBM's major competitor was a company lead by Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs; the Apple Computer Inc. The "Lisa" was the result of their competitive thrust. This system differed from its predecessors in its use of a "mouse" - then a quite foreign

MACINTOSH (1984) Apple's brainchild was the Macintosh. Like the Lisa, the Macintosh too would make use of a graphical user interface. Introduced in January 1984 it was an immediate success. The GUI (Graphical User Interface) made the system

MACINTOSH (1984)

The Apple Macintosh debuts in 1984. It features a simple, graphical interface, uses the 8-MHz, 32-bit Motorola 68000 CPU, and has a built-in 9-inch B/W screen.

Genration Computer

FIRST GENERATION (1945-1956)

First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating instructions were made-to-order for the specific task for which the computer was to be used. Each computer had a different binary-coded program called a machine language that told it how to operate. This made the

Other distinctive features of first generation computers were the use of vacuum tubes (responsible for their breathtaking size) and magnetic drums for data storage.

SECOND GENERATION (19561963)

Throughout the early 1960's, there were a number of commercially successful second generation computers used in business, universities, and government from companies such as Burroughs, Control Data, Honeywell, IBM, Sperry-Rand, and others. These second generation computers were also of solid state design, and contained

They also contained all the components we associate with the modern day computer: printers, tape storage, disk storage, memory, operating systems, and stored programs. One important example was the IBM 1401, which was universally accepted throughout industry, and is

THIRD GENERATION (1965-1971)

Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube, they still generated a great deal of heat, which damaged the computer's sensitive internal parts. The quartz rock eliminated this problem. Jack Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958.

The IC combined three electronic components onto a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz. Scientists later managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a semiconductor.

As a result, computers became ever smaller as more components were squeezed onto the chip. Another third-generation development included the use of an operating system that allowed machines to run many different programs at once with a central program that monitored and coordinated the computer's

FOURTH GENERATION (1971Present) In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home, office and schools. The 1980's saw an expansion in computer use in all three arenas as clones of the IBM PC made the personal computer even more affordable. The number of

Ten years later, 65 million PCs were being used. Computers continued their trend toward a smaller size, working their way down from desktop to laptop computers (which could fit inside a briefcase) to palmtop (able to fit inside a breast pocket). In direct competition with IBM's

FIFTH GENERATION (Future)

Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming together to enable the creation of fifth-generation computers. Two such engineering advances are parallel processing, which replaces von Neumann's single central processing unit design with a system harnessing the power of many CPUs to work as one.

Another advance is superconductor technology, which allows the flow of electricity with little or no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow.

Computers today have some attributes of fifth generation computers. For example, expert systems assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying the problem-solving steps a doctor might use in assessing a patient's needs. It will take several more years of development before expert systems are in widespread

Analog computer
An analog computer operates on inputs of continuously varying electrical voltages. An example of the use of an electronic analog computer is that of controlling a flight simulator for training pilots. The computer responds to the cockpit simulator control movements made by the pilot feels as if he is controlling an

Types of computers Computers, in general are of three types as per the electronic signal they transmit. analog computer digital computer hybrid computer

Analog computers are used mainly in scientific design and production environments. Each one has to be constructed to do a specific job and will respond very quickly to change in the measurement of inputs

Digital computer In digital computers mathematical expression are represented as binary digits (0 and 1) and all operations are done using these digits at a very high rate. It means that the computer operates on electrical inputs that have only two states, ON and OFF. These computes are widely

Personal computers Almost all the computer users are familiar with the personal computers. They normally know what the personal computer is and what are its functions. This is the computer mostly preferred by the home users. These computers are lesser in cost than the computers given above and also, small in size;

This computer is small in size and you can easily arrange it to fit in your single bedroom with its all accommodation. Today this is thought to be the most popular computer in all.

Minicomputer

This computer is next in he line but less offers less than mainframe in work and performance. These are the computers, which are mostly preferred by the small type of business personals, colleges, etc.

Mainframes Another giant in computers after the super computer is Mainframe, which can also process millions of instruction per second and capable of accessing billions of data.

This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations companies, and many other huge companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis.

This is normally to expensive and out of reach from a salary-based person who wants a computer for his home. This kind of computer can cost up to thousands of dollars.

The biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other is classified and known as super computer. It can process trillions of instructions in seconds. This computer is not used as a PC in a home neither by a student in a college.

Governments specially use this type of computer for their different calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use this huge computer for designing their products. In most of the Hollywoods movies it is used for animation purposes. This kind of computer is also helpful for

Hybrid computer Hybrid computers are computers with combined features of both digital and analog type. Desirable features of analog and digital machines can be combined to create a hybrid computer. This type of computer operates by counting as well as by measuring. In other words, the output can be either in the form of numbers

These measures will be converted into digital form and a digital device checks for any abnormality. Further, we can also input digital data like your marks and get digital results like the result of your class. Another example is a modem. (which converts the digital signals into analog, carry it along the line and at the receiving end again changes it back into digital

Number System

You may regard each digit as a box that can hold a number. In the binary system, there can be only two choices for this number -- either a "0" or a "1". In the octal system, there can be eight possibilities: "0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7".

In the decimal system, there are ten different numbers that can enter the digit box: "0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9". In the hexadecimal system, we allow 16 numbers: "0", "1", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", "A", "B", "C", "D", "E", and "F".

Convert From Decimal to Any Base

Again, let's think about what you do to obtain each digit. As an example, let's start with a decimal number 1234 and convert it to decimal notation. To extract the last digit, you move the decimal point left by one digit, which means that you divide the given number by its base 10. 1234/10 = 123 + 4/10

The remainder of 3 is the next last digit. You repeat this process until there is nothing left. Then you stop. In summary, you do the following: Quotient Remainder ----------------------------1234/10 = 123 4 --------+ 123/10 = 12 3 ------+ | 12/10 = 1 2 ----+ || 1/10 = 0 1 --+ | | | (Stop when the quotient is 0.) |||| |||| 1 2 3 4 (Base 10)

Now, let's try a nontrivial example. Let's express a decimal number 1341 in binary notation. Note that the desired base is 2, so we repeatedly divide the given decimal number by 2. Quotient Remainder ----------------------------1341/2 = 670 1 ----------------------+ 670/2 = 335 0 --------------------+ | 335/2 = 167 1 ------------------+ | | 167/2 = 83 1 ----------------+ | | | 83/2 = 41 1 --------------+ | | | | 41/2 = 20 1 ------------+ | | | | | 20/2 = 10 0 ----------+ | | | | | | 10/2 = 5 0 --------+ | | | | | | | 5/2 = 2 1 -----+|||||||| 2/2 = 1 0 ----+ | | | | ||||| 1/2 = 0 1 --+ | | | | | | | | | | (Stop when the quotient is 0)

Let's express the same decimal number 1341 in octal notation. Quotient Remainder ----------------------------1341/8 = 167 5 --------+ 167/8 = 20 7 ------+ | 20/8 = 2 4 ----+ | | 2/8 = 0 2 --+ | | | (Stop when the quotient is 0) |||| 2475 (OCT; Base 8) Let's express the same decimal number 1341 in hexadecimal notation.

Let's express the same decimal number 1341 in hexadecimal notation. Quotient Remainder ----------------------------1341/16 = 83 13 ------+ 83/16 = 5 3 ----+ | 5/16 = 0 5 --+ | | (Stop when the quotient is 0) ||| 53

Example. Convert the decimal number 3315 to hexadecimal notation. What about the hexadecimal equivalent of the decimal number 3315.3? Solution: Quotient Remainder ----------------------------3315/16 = 207 3 ------+ 207/16 = 12 15 ----+ | 12/16 = 0 12 --+ | | (Stop when the quotient is 0) ||| CF3 (HEX; Base 16) (HEX; Base 16) Product Integer

-------------------------------||| | 0.3*16 = 4.8 4 ---+||||| 0.8*16 = 12.8 12 ------+ | | | | 0.8*16 = 12.8 12 --------+ | | | 0.8*16 = 12.8 12 ----------+ | | : ---------------------+ : Thus, 3315.3 (DEC) --> CF3.4CCC... (HEX)

Note that from the Base Conversion Table, you can easily get the binary notation from the hexadecimal number by grouping four binary digits per hexadecimal digit, or from or the octal number by grouping three binary digits per octal digit, and vice versa. HEX 5 3 D BIN 0101 0011 1101 OCT 2 4 7 5 BIN 010

Convert From Any Base To Decimal

Let's think more carefully what a decimal number means. For example, 1234 means that there are four boxes (digits); and there are 4 one's in the right-most box (least significant digit), 3 ten's in the next box, 2 hundred's in the next box, and finally 1 thousand's in the leftmost box (most significant digit). The total is 1234:

Original Number:

| | How Many Tokens: 1 2 3 4 Digit/Token Value: 1000 100 10 1 Value: 1000 + 200 + 30 + 4 = 1234or simply, 1*1000 + 2*100 + 3*10 + 4*1 = 1234 Thus, each digit has a value: 10^0=1 for the least significant digit, increasing to 10^1=10,

1 |

2 |

Likewise, the least significant digit in a hexadecimal number has a value of 16^0=1 for the least significant digit, increasing to 16^1=16 for the next digit, 16^2=256 for the next, 16^3=4096 for the next, and so forth. Thus, 1234 means that there are four boxes (digits); and there are 4 one's in the right-most box (least significant digit), 3 sixteen's in the next box, 2 256's in the next, and 1 4096's in the left-most box (most significant digit). The total is: 1*4096 + 2*256 + 3*16 + 4*1 =

Solution: Original Number: 2 3 4 . 1 4 | | | | | How Many Tokens: 2 3 4 1 4 Digit/Token Value: 64 8 1 0.125 0.015625 Value: 128 + 24 + 4 + 0.125 + 0.0625 = 156.1875 Another way is to think of a cash register with different slots,

Example. Convert 234.14 expressed in an octal notation to decimal.