Diodes Part 2

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Small Signal Model

iD = ID + i d vD = VD + vd(t)

Sinusoidal Analysis
The total input voltage vI = dc VD + ac vd(t)

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Small Signal Model

Current-voltage Relation
The relation between the diode current and voltage can be written as:

I D I S eVD / nVT
Instantaneous diode voltage, vD (t)
vD = VD + vd(t)

Instantaneous diode current, iD (t)

iD (t ) I S [eVD / nVT ][ e vd / nVT ]

If vd << VT, the equation can be expanded into linear series as: (n=1)

vd iD (t ) I S [e ][1 ] VT vd iD (t ) I D I D VT
VD / VT

iD (t ) I D id ID id vd VT
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Small signal Model

Current-voltage Relation

The diode current voltage relationship can

then be written as:

vd iD (t ) I D I D VT
iD (t ) I D id ID id vd VT
id = ac component

rd

VT ID

Using Kirchoffs law,

id

vd rd

rd = diode small signal incremental resistance or diffusion resistance.

Diode can be replaced as a resistor, rd during small signal AC analysis

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Small Signal Model - Example

The circuit has a power supply V+, which is 10V superimposed with a 60 Hz 1V peak amplitude sinusoid known as a power supply ripple. Calculate VD and vd assuming the diode has a 0.7V drop at 1mA and n=2. =10kW At DC: I D

10 0.7 0.93mA 10k

AC Analysis

rd

nVT 2 x 25 53 .8W ID 0.93 mA

id = ac component

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Diode Circuits: AC Equivalent Circuit

Example
Analyze the circuit (by determining VO & vo ). Assume circuit and diode parameters of VPS = 5 V, R = 5 k, V = 0.6 V & vi = 0.1 sin t (V)

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Diode Circuits: AC Equivalent Circuit

Analyze the circuit (by determining VO & vo ). Assume circuit and diode parameters of VPS = 5 V, R = 5 k, V = 0.6 V & vi = 0.1 sin t (V)

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Zener Breakdown
It is a result of tunneling of carriers across the junction. This effect is prominent at very high doping concentrations and results in breakdown voltage less than 5 V. The voltage at which breakdown occurs is usually in the range of 50 to 200 V for discrete devices. A pn junction is usually rated in terms of its peak inverse voltage or PIV. The PIV of a diode must never be exceeded in circuit operation if reverse breakdown is to be avoided.

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Zener Diode
Diodes are fabricated with a specifically designed breakdown voltage and are designed to operate in the breakdown region. These diodes are called Zener diodes. Circuit symbol of the Zener diode:

The large current that may exist at breakdown can cause heating effects and catastrophic failure of the diode due to the large power dissipated in the device.
Diodes can be operated in the breakdown region by limiting the current to a value within the capacities of the device. Such a diode can be used as a constant-voltage reference in a circuit.

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Zener Diode Circuit

The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is nearly constant over a wide range of reverse-bias currents. This make the Zener diode useful in a voltage regulator, or a constant-voltage reference circuit. We can write:

For the diode current IZ, we get: where IL = VZ / RL

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Rectifier Circuits

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Rectifier Circuits
A dc power supply is required to bias all electronic circuits. A diode rectifier forms the first stage of a dc power supply .

Rectification is the process of converting an alternating (ac) voltage into one that is limited to one polarity. Rectification is classified as half-wave or full-wave rectifier.
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Half-Wave Rectification
Half-wave rectifier circuit and voltage transfer characteristics, vO versus vS. For vS < VD0, the diode will be nonconducting, so the output voltage will remain zero. When vS > VD0, The diode becomes forward biased and a current is induced in the circuit.
For vS > VD0, the slope of the transfer curve is 1, assuming the diode forward resistance rD=0.

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Half-Wave Rectification
For vS > VD0, vO = vS VD0 for vS VD0, output voltage is zero.

When diode is cut off, no voltage drop occurs across resistor R, entire input signal voltage appears across the diode.
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Full-Wave Rectification

The voltage transfer characteristics, vO versus vS, assuming that forward diode resistance rd of each diode is small and negligible.

The full-wave rectifier inverts the negative portions of the sine wave so that a unipolar output is generated during both halves of the input sinusoid. During the positive half of the input voltage cycle, diode D1 is forward biased and conducting and D2 is reverse biased or off. The current through D1 and the output resistance produce a positive output voltage.

During the negative half cycle, diode D1 is cut off and D2 is forward biased or on. The current through the output resistance again produces a positive output voltage.
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Full-Wave Rectification
When vS > VD, D1 is on and the output voltage is vO = vS - VD. When vS is negative, then for vS < -VD or -vS > VD, D2 is on and the output voltage is vO = -vS - VD.

D1 on

D2 on

D1 on

D2 on

D1 on

Since a rectified output voltage occurs during both positive and negative cycles of the input signal, this circuit is called a full-wave rectifier.
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Bridge Rectifier
During the positive half of the input voltage cycle, vS is positive, D1 and D2 are forward biased, D3 and D4 are reverse biased and produces the output voltage across R. During the negative half cycle, vS is negative, D3 and D4 are forward biased, D1 and D2 are reverse biased and produces the same output voltage polarity as before.

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Filter capacitor
A capacitor is added in parallel with the load resistor of a half-wave rectifier to form a simple filter circuit. The voltage across capacitor follows the initial portion of the signal voltage. When the signal voltage reaches its peak and begins to decrease, the voltage across the capacitor starts to decrease or discharge. If the RC time constant is large, the voltage across the capacitor discharges exponentially. During this time period, the diode is cut off.
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Filter capacitor
During the next positive cycle of the input voltage, there is a point at which the input voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage, diode turns back on. The diode remains on until the input reaches its peak value and the capacitor voltage is completely recharged. Since the capacitor filters out a large portion of the sinusoidal signal, called a filter capacitor.

The steady-state output voltage of the RC filter

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Filter capacitor

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Clipper and Clamper Circuits

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Clippers
Clipper circuits, also called limiter circuits, are used to eliminate portion of a signal that are above or below a specified level.

The diode D1 is off as long as v1 < VB + V.

With D1 off, the current is approximately zero, the voltage drop across R is essentially zero and the output voltage follows the input voltage.
If v1 > VB + V, the diode turns on, the output voltage is clipped and vO = VB + V. In this circuit, the output is clipped above VB + V.
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Clippers

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Various Clippers

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Clippers
Positive and negative clipping can be performed simultaneously by using a double limiter or a parallel-based clipper.

The parallel-based clipper is designed with two diodes and two voltage sources oriented in opposite directions.
The voltage transfer characteristics of the limiter circuit. The limiter is a liner circuit if the signal is in the range , where Av = slope of the transfer curve.
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Clippers
Example Find the output of the parallel-based clipper.

For simplicity, assume that V = 0 and rf = 0 for both diodes.

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Clampers
Clamping shifts the entire signal voltage by a dc level. The sinusoidal input voltage signal, vI. During the first 90 degrees of the input waveform, voltage across the capacitor, vC = vI (assuming that rf = 0 & V = 0).

When vC reaches its peak and begins to decrease, the diode is reverse biased.
Ideally, capacitor cannot discharge, so that vC = VM. By KVL, we get

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Clampers

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