Introduction: Packet Radio Networks

Fixed or mobile nodes that communicate via

radios
Advantages:

Fast (re)deployment and set-up of network Ability to support mobile nodes

Disadvantage: complications due to

Dynamic nature of the network topology

Ad-hoc networks vs. fixed networks Key Advantage - Dynamic sharing of bandwidth

among multiple users

Introduction: Packet Radio Networks

One of the most attractive features of PRNET is

rapid deployment. Once installed, the system is self-initializing and self-organizing. The network nodes discover radio connectivity among neighbouring nodes and organize routing strategies based on that connectivity. Self-configuring infrastructurelessnetworkof mobile devices connected bywirelesslinks

Technical Challenges
1. Flow control over a wireless multi-hop 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

communication route Error control over wireless links Deriving and maintaining network topology information Deriving accurate routing information Mechanisms to handle router mobility Shared channel access by multiple users Processing capability of terminals Size and power requirements

Architecture of PRNETs

Architecture of PRNETs
The network architecture of PRNETs, which comprises

mobile devices/terminals, packet radios, and repeaters. The static station is optional.

A PRNET consists of several mobile radio repeaters,

wireless terminals, and dedicated mobile stations.

The role of a repeater is to relay packets from one

repeater to another, until the packets reach the destination host.

The mobile station is present to derive routes from one

host to another.

Architecture of PRNETs
As network conditions change, routes are

dynamically reassigned by the station to satisfy minimum delay criteria.

Hosts and terminals attached to the PRNET are

unaware of the station's assignment and reassignment of communication routes.

Components of Packet Radios

The interface of a data terminal to a packet

radio

Components of Packet Radios

The user computer is interfaced to a radio via the

terminal-network controller (TNC)

The user computer - mobile device/terminal The radio and TNC logic referred to as -the packet

radio
A packet radio network (PRN) is a collection of

packet radios, with some packet radios connected to user devices while others are not.

Routing in PRNETs
Point-to-Point Routing Broadcast Routing Packet Forwarding Impact of Mobility

Point-to-Point Routing
For point-to-point communications A packet moves through a series of one or more repeaters

until it reaches the final destination.

point-to-point route - an ordered set of repeater addresses

that is determined by the mobile station.

Mobile station is the only element in the network that has

knowledge of the overall network connectivity i.e network topology. and distributes this information to all repeaters in the route or directly to the source packet radio.

The mobile station computes the best point-to-point route

Suitable for slow moving user terminals.

Broadcast Routing
In broadcast routing, a packet radiates away from the

source packet radio

Not efficient for two-party communications since all

other nodes in the network must participate in the transmission and reception of packets that are not intended for them.

the destination host address is included in each data

packet.

No specific routes are derived prior to data

transmission; hence, routing decisions are not centralized.

For fast moving user terminals, broadcast routing was

Broadcast Routing
To ensure that each packet radio only forwards a

packet once, each repeater has to maintain a list of packet identifiers for previously broadcast packets that it recently had received and forwarded.

Packet Forwarding
2 Approaches The Connectionless Approach The Connection-oriented Approach The connectionless approach to packet forwarding

requires some background operation to maintain up-to-date network topology and link information in each node.

This is commonly associated with broadcast

routing, where each packet carries sufficient routing information for it to arrive at the destination.

Packet Forwarding
In the connection-oriented packet forwarding

approach, an explicit route establishment phase is required before data traffic can be transported.
This approach is commonly associated with point-

to-point routing, where each node in a route has a lookup table for forwarding incoming packets to the respective outgoing links.
Hence, if a topology changes, a route re-

establishment phase is needed.

Impact of Mobility
In a PRNET, all elements of the network can be

mobile.

When the user rate of mobility is increased, point-

to-point routing may not be practical

Most of the time will be spent in computing

alternate point-to-point routes instead of forwarding the packets to their intended destinations.

Under such circumstances, very poor

communication performance will be observed.

Impact of Mobility
Broadcast routing is less affected by user mobility The packets do not follow a specific point-to-point

route.

Instead, every node is supposed to relay the

packets, and hence, the destination host will receive the packet eventually. changing routes in broadcast routing under conditions of rapid host mobility.

There is, therefore, no need to cope with rapidly

However, broadcasting is power inefficient.

Route Calculation
Each packet radio gathers and maintains

information about current network topology

Each node maintains the following tables: 1. Neighbor table 2. Tier table 3. Device table

Neighbor Table

Packet radio broadcasts a Packet Radio Organization Packet (PROP) every 7.5 seconds

To announce its existence Neighbors that hear a PROP update their neighbor tables

Contain information about the neighbors. Also tracks the bidirectional quality of the link to and from

those neighbors

In PRNETs, link quality is the ratio of the number of

packets correctly received from the transmitting packet radio to the number of packets that the transmitting packet radio actually transmitted at that same interval.

Neighbor Table

Tier Table
The tier information ripples outward from each packet

radio at an average rate of 3.75 seconds per hop and eventually reaches all packet radios.

Every packet radio knows its distance in tiers (or radio

hops) from itself to every prospective destination and the next-hop packet radio.

Tier 1 = 1 hop neighbors Best Route : shortest route with good connectivity

on each hop

Tier Table
When a link (for example, from node A to B) to a neighboring packet radio turns bad, all routes in node A's tier table for which node B is the next-hop packet radio will also be marked bad. Also disseminate information about bad links in PROP messages

Device Table
Logical addressing: maps device to a packet

radio Each mobile device/terminal periodically sends a control packet across the wired interface to its attached packet radio. Information about the radios attached device is included in PROP messages

Device Table
A packet radio keeps track of affiliated devices and

propagates this mapping information via a PROP to other packet radios in the network at an average rate of 3.75 seconds per hop.
This allows new radios to be attached to devices and vice

versa
Such correspondences are maintained in the device table

at each packet radio

Principles of Packet Forwarding

In PRNETs, a packet traverses over a chosen

path hop-by-hop and is acknowledged at every packet radio along the path. Forwarding is accomplished via information read from the device and tier tables, and from the packet headers.

Principles of Packet Forwarding

ETE Header
The end-to-end header (ETE) is created by the source mobile

device/terminal, not the packet radio.

It includes
the source device ID/address, which is used to update the

packet radio's device-to-packet radio mapping information the destination device ID/address, which is used in packet forwarding.

Principles of Packet Forwarding

The Structure of a Routing Header

Pacing Techniques
The pacing protocol provides flow and congestion control

while ensuring fair use of the radio channel.

A single threading technique is employed, which requires

that a packet transmitted to a certain next packet radio be acknowledged (or discarded) before another packet is sent to the same packet radio.

Pacing Techniques
Three packet radios engaged in forwarding packets. The transmitting packet radio L must allow time for the next

packet radio M to receive L's transmission to forward it on also to receive the acknowledgment from its next packet radio N.
The source packet radio must ensure that
its immediate neighbor has succesfully received and

forwarded the packet Also the following neighbor has received and eventually forwarded the same packet. Hence, the source packet radio must wait for a three-frame

Pacing Techniques
If it waits for only a two-frame period, it has no way of

knowing if packet radio N has successfully received the packet from M.

This means that no packet radio can transmit more than one

third of the time.

Packet radio L must, therefore, wait to transmit Packet 2

until three times the forwarding delay has elapsed since its transmission of the first packet.

Three-frame packet forwarding in PRNETs

Media Access in PRNETs

The Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) protocol to coordinate

communications among mobile hosts.

CSMA prevents a packet radio from transmitting at the same

time when a neighboring packet radio is using the medium. its hardware indication bit-synchronization-in-the-lock. is being sensed.

A packet radio is aware if a neighbor is transmitting by reading This bit, when set, implies that the channel is busy and a carrier Whenever a carrier is being sensed, a packet radio will refrain

from transmitting.

While carrier sensing reduces the probability of channel

contention, it cannot eliminate hidden terminal and exposed nodes problems.

Flow Acknowledgments in PRNETs

Packets are forwarded via a single communication route through

a PRNET.

Each packet radio examines the information contained in the

packet headers and in its own device and tier tables.

Each packet radio must decide if it should be the one to transmit

the packet, if it should update the routing header before transmitting, and if it should update its own tables.

Other packet radios within the radio range will also each receive

the transmitted packet.

If these neighbors are not part of the route, they will discard the

overheard packets.

The principles of passive and active packet acknowledgments in PRNETs

Flow Acknowledgments in PRNETs

The downstream node that receives the packet will process the

packet and proceed with issuing a passive acknowledgment.

The single transmission, therefore, not only forwards the packet

on to the next packet radio but also acknowledges the previous packet radio that the packet was successfully received and is being forwarded. packet reaches the destination node.

This principle of passive acknowledgment will proceed until the Since the destination node does not have a downstream node

and it is the terminating point, an active acknowledgment is sent by the destination node to its upstream node to confirm successful reception of the packet. form of flow control without the excessive use of control packets.

The use of active and passive acknowledgments provide some

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