CH 11

Distributed Systems Architectures
Architectural design for software
that executes on more than one
processor
©Ian Sommerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 1

Objectives
● To explain the advantages and disadvantages of
distributed systems architectures
● To describe different approaches to the
development of clientserver systems
● To explain the differences between clientserver
and distributed object architectures
● To describe object request brokers and the
principles underlying the CORBA standards

Topics covered
● Multiprocessor architectures
● Clientserver architectures
● Distributed object architectures
● CORBA

Distributed systems
● Virtually all large computerbased systems are
now distributed systems
● Information processing is distributed over several
computers rather than confined to a single
machine
● Distributed software engineering is now very
important

System types
● Personal systems that are not distributed and that
are designed to run on a personal computer or
workstation.
● Embedded systems that run on a single processor
or on an integrated group of processors.
● Distributed systems where the system software
runs on a loosely integrated group of cooperating
processors linked by a network.

Distributed system characteristics
● Resource sharing
● Openness
● Concurrency
● Scalability
● Fault tolerance
● Transparency

Distributed system disadvantages
● Complexity
● Security
● Manageability
● Unpredictability

Design issue Description
Resource The resources in a distributed system are spread across different
identification computers and a naming scheme has to be devised so that users can
discover and refer to the resources that they need. An example of
such a naming scheme is the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) that
is used to identify WWW pages. If a meaningful and universally
understood identification scheme is not used then many of these
resources will be inaccessible to system users.
Communications The universal availability of the Internet and the efficient
implementation of Internet TCP/IP communication protocols means
that, for most distributed systems, these are the most effective way
for the computers to communicate. However, where there are
specific requirements for performance, reliability etc. alternative
approaches to communications may be used.
Quality of service The quality of service offered by a system reflects its performance,
availability and reliability. It is affected by a number of factors such
as the allocation of processes to processes in the system, the
distribution of resources across the system, the network and the
system hardware and the adaptability of the system.
Software The software architecture describes how the application
architectures functionality is distributed over a number of logical components and
how these components are distributed across processors. Choosing
the right architecture for an application is essential to achieve the
desired quality of service.
Issues in distributed system design
Distributed systems archiectures
● Clientserver architectures
• Distributed services which are called on by clients. Servers that
provide services are treated differently from clients that use
services
● Distributed object architectures
• No distinction between clients and servers. Any object on the
system may provide and use services from other objects

Middleware
● Software that manages and supports the different
components of a distributed system. In essence, it
sits in the middle of the system
● Middleware is usually offtheshelf rather than
specially written software
● Examples
• Transaction processing monitors
• Data convertors
• Communication controllers

Multiprocessor architectures
● Simplest distributed system model
● System composed of multiple processes which
may (but need not) execute on different
processors
● Architectural model of many large realtime
systems
● Distribution of process to processor may be pre
ordered or may be under the control of a
despatcher

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Clientserver architectures
● The application is modelled as a set of services
that are provided by servers and a set of clients
that use these services
● Clients know of servers but servers need not
know of clients
● Clients and servers are logical processes
● The mapping of processors to processes is not
necessarily 1 : 1

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Layered application architecture
● Presentation layer
• Concerned with presenting the results of a computation to
system users and with collecting user inputs
● Application processing layer
• Concerned with providing application specific functionality
e.g., in a banking system, banking functions such as open
account, close account, etc.
● Data management layer
• Concerned with managing the system databases

Application layers
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©Ian Sommerville 2000
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Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 17
Thin and fat clients
● Thinclient model
• In a thinclient model, all of the application processing and data
management is carried out on the server. The client is simply
responsible for running the presentation software.
● Fatclient model
• In this model, the server is only responsible for data
management. The software on the client implements the
application logic and the interactions with the system user.

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Thin client model
● Used when legacy systems are migrated to client
server architectures.
• The legacy system acts as a server in its own right with a
graphical interface implemented on a client
● A major disadvantage is that it places a heavy
processing load on both the server and the
network

Fat client model
● More processing is delegated to the client as the
application processing is locally executed
● Most suitable for new C/S systems where the
capabilities of the client system are known in
advance
● More complex than a thin client model especially
for management. New versions of the application
have to be installed on all clients

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Threetier architectures
● In a threetier architecture, each of the
application architecture layers may execute on a
separate processor
● Allows for better performance than a thinclient
approach and is simpler to manage than a fat
client approach
● A more scalable architecture as demands
increase, extra servers can be added

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Use of C/S architectures
Architecture Applications
Twotier C/S Legacy system applications where separating application
architecture with processing and data management is impractical
thin clients Computationallyintensive applications such as compilers with
little or no data management
Dataintensive applications (browsing and querying) with little
or no application processing.
Twotier C/S Applications where application processing is provided by
architecture with COTS (e.g. Microsoft Excel) on the client
fat clients Applications where computationallyintensive processing of
data (e.g. data visualisation) is required.
Applications with relatively stable enduser functionality used
in an environment with wellestablished system management
Threetier or Large scale applications with hundreds or thousands of clients
multitier C/S Applications where both the data and the application are
architecture volatile.
Applications where data from multiple sources are integrated

Distributed object architectures
● There is no distinction in a distributed object
architectures between clients and servers
● Each distributable entity is an object that provides
services to other objects and receives services
from other objects
● Object communication is through a middleware
system called an object request broker (software
bus)
● However, more complex to design than C/S
systems
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Advantages of distributed object architecture
● It allows the system designer to delay decisions
on where and how services should be provided
● It is a very open system architecture that allows
new resources to be added to it as required
● The system is flexible and scaleable
● It is possible to reconfigure the system
dynamically with objects migrating across the
network as required

Uses of distributed object architecture
● As a logical model that allows you to structure
and organise the system. In this case, you think
about how to provide application functionality
solely in terms of services and combinations of
services
● As a flexible approach to the implementation of
clientserver systems. The logical model of the
system is a clientserver model but both clients
and servers are realised as distributed objects
communicating through a software bus

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● The logical model of the system is not one of
service provision where there are distinguished
data management services
● It allows the number of databases that are
accessed to be increased without disrupting the
system
● It allows new types of relationship to be mined by
adding new integrator objects

CORBA
● CORBA is an international standard for an Object
Request Broker middleware to manage
communications between distributed objects
● Several implementation of CORBA are available
● DCOM is an alternative approach by Microsoft to
object request brokers
● CORBA has been defined by the Object
Management Group

Application structure
● Application objects
● Standard objects, defined by the OMG, for a
specific domain e.g. insurance
● Fundamental CORBA services such as directories
and security management
● Horizontal (i.e. cutting across applications)
facilities such as user interface facilities

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CORBA standards
● An object model for application objects
• A CORBA object is an encapsulation of state with a well
defined, languageneutral interface defined in an IDL (interface
definition language)
● An object request broker that manages requests
for object services
● A set of general object services of use to many
distributed applications
● A set of common components built on top of
these services

CORBA objects
● CORBA objects are comparable, in principle, to
objects in C++ and Java
● They MUST have a separate interface definition
that is expressed using a common language (IDL)
similar to C++
● There is a mapping from this IDL to
programming languages (C++, Java, etc.)
● Therefore, objects written in different languages
can communicate with each other

Object request broker (ORB)
● The ORB handles object communications. It
knows of all objects in the system and their
interfaces
● Using an ORB, the calling object binds an IDL
stub that defines the interface of the called object
● Calling this stub results in calls to the ORB which
then calls the required object through a published
IDL skeleton that links the interface to the service
implementation

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©Ian Sommerville 2000
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Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 39
InterORB communications
● ORBs are not usually separate programs but are a
set of objects in a library that are linked with an
application when it is developed
● ORBs handle communications between objects
executing on the sane machine
● Several ORBS may be available and each
computer in a distributed system will have its
own ORB
● InterORB communications are used for
distributed object calls
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CORBA services
● Naming and trading services
• These allow objects to discover and refer to other objects on the
network
● Notification services
• These allow objects to notify other objects that an event has
occurred
● Transaction services
• These support atomic transactions and rollback on failure

Key points
● Almost all new large systems are distributed
systems
● Distributed systems support resource sharing,
openness, concurrency, scalability, fault tolerance
and transparency
● Clientserver architectures involve services being
delivered by servers to programs operating on
clients
● User interface software always runs on the client
and data management on the server
Key points
● In a distributed object architecture, there is no
distinction between clients and servers
● Distributed object systems require middleware to
handle object communications
● The CORBA standards are a set of middleware
standards that support distributed object
architectures

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Distributed Systems Architectures

©Ian Sommerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 1

©Ian Sommerville 2000 Software Engineering, 6th edition. Chapter 11 Slide 2

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