CHAPTER 3: ENERGY TRANSDUCERS, CYTOSKELETON AND CYTOPLASM

ENERGY TRANSDUCERS
Mitochondria (singular, mitochondrion) and chloroplasts are organelles that convert energy to forms the cell can use for its various kinds of work. Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, the catabolic process that produces ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) by extracting energy from sugars, fats and other fuels with the help of oxygen.

Characteristics of mitochondria and chloroplasts

They are enclosed by membranes, but they are not considered part of the endomembrane system. This is because their membrane proteins are not made by the ER, but by free ribosomes in the cytosol and by ribosomes contained within the mitochondria and chloroplasts themselves. They contain a small amount of DNA that programs the synthesis of some of their own proteins. They are semiautonomous organelles that grow and divide to increase their numbers. They are energy transducer organelles.

Structure of a Mitochondrion
It is a spherical ovoid structure measuring about 1.5 um x 0.5 um (Figure 3.2). It is enclosed in an envelope of two membranes; an outer membrane and an inner membrane, separated by an intermembrane space. The outer membrane has no folds and bears stalkless protein particles. The inner membrane has many infoldings called cristae (singular: crista) that greatly increases its surface area. These cristae bear stalked protein particles. Enclosed by the inner membrane is the mitochondrial matrix.

Figure 3.2. Mitochondrialstructure

Functions of a Mitochondrion
The general function of the mitochondrion is to release energy in cells and is therefore considered as the POWERHOUSE OF CELLS. Energy is produced from the oxidation of food primarily from sugars. This occurs during respiration

 Energy flow and chemical recycling in life. The chloroplasts of plants absorb light and trap its energy in the chemical bonds of the sugar glucose, which photosynthesis makes from carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen. Produced as a by-product of photosynthesis, is released to the air. In mitochondria, cellular respiration uses oxygen in breaking down glucose to carbon dioxide and water, which can be reused in photosynthesis. Mitochondria uses the energy that was stored in the glucose to make ATP, which powers nearly all forms of cellular work. Organisms dissipate energy back to the environment in the form of heat.

 Table 2. Localization of metabolic functions within the mitochondrion Outer membrane - Synthesis of phospholipids Elongation of fatty acids Inner membrane Transport of electrons (Hydrogen Carrier System) Oxidative phosphorylation Intermembrane space - Phosphorylation of nucleotides Matrix - Pyruvate oxidation, Krebs Cycle Beta oxidation of fats , DNA replication , RNA synthesis (transcription), Protein synthesis (translation)

Respiration
Respiration is of two types:
External respiration or breathing during which the organisms exchange gases with the environment and during this process no energy is released. Internal respiration during which energy is released and this occurs in every living cell of all the organisms.

Internal or Cellular Respiration occurs in three stages:

A. Glycolysis (splitting of sugar): This process occurs anywhere in the cytosol and the presence of oxygen is not necessary The hexose (6-carbon compound) sugar is phosphorylated (2 ATP groups are added to it i.e. used up). This is necessary to activate the sugar and prevent it from getting out of the cell.

The phosphorylated sugar is split into two molecules of a 3-carbon sugar compound called PYRUVIC ACID where two hydrogen atoms are released. The two hydrogen atoms quickly enter the hydrogen carrier system where 3 molecules of ATP are produced. But since there are 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, so 6 molecules of ATP are produced.

At the same time the phosphorylated 6-carbon sugar is converted to pyruvic acid, where 2 more molecules of ATP are produced by oxidative phosphorylation (linking of phosphate groups to ADP). Therefore, 4 more molecules of ATP are produced. At the end, the complete oxidation of one molecule of 6-carbon sugar via glycolysis, produces a net total of 8ATPs (6+4 = 10, 10-2 (ATPs used up as in step no.1) = 8).

KREBS CYCLE
This process occurs in the presence of oxygen (Figure 3.3). If oxygen is present, one molecule of pyruvic acid is converted into a 2-carbon compound called acetyl coenzyme A. This involves the removal of one molecule of CO2 and two hydrogen atoms.

The two hydrogen atoms enter the hydrogen carrier system to form 3 molecules of ATP. Therefore, there will be 6 molecules of ATP.

Acetyl coenzyme goes through a series of reactions which release 2 molecules of carbon dioxide and a number of hydrogens which through the hydrogen carrier system and oxidative phosphorylation, produce 12 molecules of ATP. Therefore, there will be 24 molecules of ATP. Thus, Krebs cycle alone produces a net total of 30 ATPs (24+6=30)

C. Hydrogen Transfer or Electron Transfer System and Oxidative Phosphorylation:

It is the third stage of cellular respiration, consisting of the hydrogen carrier system and oxidative phosphorylation, that requires molecular oxygen to combine with hydrogen to form water, thus releasing the carrier for further activities.

Respiration without oxygen

The bulk of useful energy yielded by metabolism comes from the transfer of hydrogen atoms. For this to work oxygen must be available to accept the hydrogen atoms from the final carrier. However, some organisms derive energy from breaking down sugar in the complete absence of oxygen, a process known as anaerobic respiration or anaerobiosis

Two types of anaerobes

Complete anaerobes: These live permanently in oxygen-deficient conditions and are completely independent of oxygen for respiration. Indeed in some cases they may be poisoned by oxygen, even in small concentrations. Partial anaerobes: These live in the presence of oxygen, but if oxygen happens to be absent or in short supply they can switch to anaerobic respiration. The majority of anaerobes fall into this category

DIFFERENCE
The main difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration is that in anaerobic respiration, sugar is only partially broken down. Instead of being oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, it is converted to either ethanol or lactic acid. Lactic acid is the end product of anaerobiosis in animals, ethanol in plants and yeast. Anaerobic bacteria can produce both end products depending on the species.

Adenosine Tri-phosphate
The energy released from respiration is first used to combine a phosphate ion with a molecule of adenosine di-phosphate (ADP) to make a molecule of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In fact, 38 molecules of ATP can be built when one molecule of gluose is completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water (aerobic respiration).

 In the presence of an appropriate enzyme, ATP readily breaks down to ADP, releasing energy and an inorganic phosphate ion. The energy released from the breakdown of ATP can now be used to drive the different chemical reactions Therefore, molecules of ATP are best thought of as packets of energy, which are emptied when energy is needed anywhere in the body. Thus, ATP is a temporary energy store.

The advantages of having energy stored as ATP?

The amount of energy released by oxidizing one glucose molecule is quite large. If all of it is used up it will be a waste, but by storing this energy in small packages e.g. ATP molecules, the cell can use small and precise quantities whenever required. The breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide and water is a comparatively slow process with many intermediate steps and enzymes. On the other hand, ATP breakdown is rapid and needs only a suitable ATP-ase enzyme to release energy.

Chloroplasts
The chloroplast is a member of a specialized family of plant and algal organelles known as the plastids. There are a number of different types of plastids which have specialized functions. Amyloplast is a colourless plastid that stores starch in the roots and tubers of plants. Chromoplasts are plastids rich with red and orange pigments, commonly found in fruits, flowers and autumn leaves. Chloroplasts are plastids that contain the photosynthetic pigments and enzyme systems that are required for the conversion of light energy to chemical energy.

Structure of the Chloroplast

In higher plants, they are usually biconvex, circular structures, about 5-10 um long. They are bigger than mitochondria and larger than any other structure in the cell except the nucleus. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are surrounded by both an inner and an outer membrane separated by a narrow intermembrane space

 Stroma fluid filled cavity,contains enzymes for photosynthesis,DNA,ribosomes and ions. Suspended in stroma are thylakoids. Thylakoids arranged in stacks called grana. Grana are interconnected by stroma thylakoids.

 Chloroplasts are located in thylakoids. The function of thylakoid is to hold the chlorophyll in a suitable position for trapping maximum amount of light.

The chemical pathways involved in photosynthesis

In the process of photosynthesis energy from sunlight is somehow trapped by chlorophyll and used in the manufacture of carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water. The process can be summarized by the following equation: Light energy Chlorophyll CO2 + 2H2O CH2O + O2 + H2O Carbon dioxide Water Carbohydrate Oxygen Water Although the equation above is very simple, but it is misleading because it gives the impression that the oxygen evolved comes from the carbon dioxide, which is not true. It also suggests that photosynthesis takes place in one step whereas it occurs in two stages each consisting of many steps.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS - STAGES
These stages are: A. Lightdependent stage (light stage): This stage takes place in the thylakoid membranes and can be divided into cyclic photophosphorylation and non-cyclic photophosphorylation (Figure 3.5).

(i) Cyclic Photophosphorylation:

When light strikes the chlorophyll molecule, the energy level of an electron is raise but the chlorophyll molecule becomes positively charged and unstable. In this excited state the electron is emitted and taken up by an electron acceptor. The electron is then passed through an electron carrier system which hands it back to the chlorophyll molecule thus making it neutral and therefore stable. For all this to happen, ADP and inorganic phosphate must be supplied and the appropriate carriers must be present. This process is known as cyclic photophosphorylation. Like oxidative phosphorylation in cell respiration, it is concerned with synthesizing ATP molecules but the source of energy is different. In oxidative phosphorylation, energy is derived from the oxidation of organic compounds. In photophosphorylation it comes from sunlight via chlorophyll.

(ii: ) Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

Water splits into hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) ions. Not all the emitted electrons from the cyclic photophosphorylation are returned via the electron carrier system to chlorophyll. Sometimes an electron together with a hydrogen ion, is taken up by a hydrogen acceptor called nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), which becomes NADPH2. NADPH2 now enters the dark stage of photosynthesis, handing on the hydrogen which is then used in the reduction of carbon dioxide. How is the chlorophyll molecule kept stable since it has been deprived of an electron? The hydroxyl ions donates an electron to chlorophyll, and the OH resulting from this forms water and oxygen. This oxygen is the oxygen gas which is given off in photosynthesis. Finally the electron derived from the hydroxyl ion is carried by the elctron carrier system, resulting in the formation of ATP. This pathway is not cyclical, so it is called non-cyclic photophosphorylation.

B. Light independent stage (Dark stage):

This process takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast (Figure 3.5). Carbon dioxide combines with a 5-carbon organic compound called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). This fixes the carbon dioxide into the photosynthetic process. The combination of carbon dioxide with RuBP gives an unstable 6-carbon compound which splits immediately into two molecules of a 3-carbon compound, phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). The PGA is reduced to form a 3-carbon sugar, phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL). The hydrogen for the reduction comes from NADPH2 , which also supplies most of the energy, the rest coming from ATP. The 3-carbon sugar is now built up to a 6-carbon sugar which can be converted into starch for storage. Not all the 3-carbon sugar is converted into 6-carbon sugar. Some of it enters a series of reactions called Cavin cycle which results in the regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate. This is very important because only ensuring a supply of ribulose bisphosphate can the continued fixation of carbon dioxide take place. The starch is not the only end product of photosynthesis, fats and proteins are also formed.

The Cytoskeleton
Network of fibres throughout the cytoplasm.

This mesh has been named the cytoskeleton and is known to be a major factor in the overall organization of the cell.

Functions of the cytoskeleton

It gives mechanical support to the cell and helps maintain its shape. This is especially important for animal cells because they lack cell walls. It provides some sort of an anchor to organelles and cytoplasmic enzymes, thus maintaining them in their place. It enables a cell to change its shape.

It is associated with movement of the entire cell or movement of organelles within the cell. Its fibres act as the cells bones and muscles. It moves cells by cilia and flagella

It extends the pseudopodia of Amoeba and also functions in the streaming of cytoplasm that circulates materials within many large plant cells. It enables vesicles to travel to their destinations. It enables the plasma membrane to form food vacuoles during phagocytosis.

THREE TYPES OF FIBRES IN CYTOSKELETON

Microtubules, thickest of the three types (Figure 3.6); Microfilaments (also called actin filaments) the thinnest (Figure 3.7) Intermediate filaments, a collection of fibers, whose diameter fall into a middle range

Figure 3.6. Molecular structure of a microtubule

MTOC

nucleus

microtubules

Figure 3.7. Molecular structure of a microfilament

Properties of microtubules
STRUCTURE- HOLLOW TUBES -WALLS HAS 13 COLUMNS OF TUBULIN PROTEINS DIAMETER25NM WITH 15 NM LUMEN PROTEINS- ALPHA TUBULIN - BETA TUBULIN

FUNCTIONS CELL MOTILITY CHROMOSOME MOVEMENTS ORGANISATION OF CYTOPLASM MOVEMENT OF ORGANELES MAINTAINANCE OF CELL SHAPE

PROPERTIES OF MICROFILAMENTS
STRUCTURE2 INTERWINED STRANDS OF ACTIN DIAMETER7NM PROTEINSG-ACTIN

FUNCTIONS
MUSCLE CONTRACTION CYTOPLASMIC STREAMING AMOEBOID MOVEMENT CELL DIVISION MAINTAIN CELL SHAPE CHANGES IN CELL SHAPE

PROPERTIES OF INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

STRUCTUREHOLLOW TUBES .DIAMETER8-10NM .PROTEINS 5 DIFFERENT PROTEINS

FUNCTIONS MAINTENCE OF CELL SHAPE

Microtubule and Centriole

The regulation , assembly and disassembly of microtubules is controlled from the Microtubule Organising Center (MTOC) which lies near to the nucleus. The microtubules which emanate from this center form networks through the cell which can be used for support and transport of organelles such as vesicles. There are also microtubules near the plasma membrane which reinforce cell shape.

 In animal cells, the MTOC lies near the nucleus and is composed of two structures called Centrioles. The centriole is composed of 9 sets of triple microtubules arranged in a ring. There is no central microtubule (9 + 0 arrangement). The two centrioles lie at right angles to each other.

 During cell division the centrioles replicate with each new cell receiving a copy (with the centrioles still arranged at right angles to each other). Centriole may play a role in microtubule assembly, they do not appear to be essential as some plants lack them.

 Microtubules are also involved in the movement of chromosomes during mitosis and meiosis. Centrioles also control the direction of cilia or flagella movement

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the entire area or region between the plasma membrane and the nucleus The cytoplasm is full of specialized organelles (membrane bound compartments) suspended in a semifluid medium called the cytosol. The cytosol is at pH 6.8 7.1, has a 70-80% water content and is rich in proteins, enzymes, nutrients, ions and small molecules. The cytoplasm is the area where the majority of the cell activities occur (sugar breakdown, fat synthesis, protein synthesis).

 The membranous organelles keep localized areas separate from the cytosol thus allowing specialized functions to occur. Within the cytosol, there are also particles known as ribosomes which are involved in protein synthesis.