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Task: 275.000.000 hits Task-based: 1.320.000 hits Task-based language: 607.000 hits Task-based language teaching: 311.000 Task-based language education: 320.000
Defining task
by task is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. Tasks are the things people will tell you they do if you ask them and they are not applied linguists (Long, 1985: 89)
Two questions
1 To what extent can we expect these cleverly designed tasks to elicit the same kind of interactional work and cognitive processing in authentic classrooms?
2 To what extent do these cleverly designed tasks really promote the students ability to use the target language outside the classroom?
In task-supported teaching, tasks are seen not as a means by which learners acquire new knowledge or restructure their interlanguages but simply as a way by which learners can activate their existing knowledge of the L2 by developing fluency (Ellis, 2003: 30)
Radio Tika
- Create a radio news bulletin, using Dutch (main medium of instruction) and other languages - 3 primary school teachers were videotaped - Grade 6, children aged 12, multilingual classes - Result: three different activities
Teacher 1
No
+++
No
Teacher 2
No
++
Yes
Teacher 3
Yes
No
+++
Preactional stage - setting goals that are worthwhile to pursue - perceiving the task as a reasonable challenge (goal can be reached, gap can be bridged) Actional stage: - maintaining task motivation through action-control processes Postactional stage: - evaluating past experiences - determining future activities (Drnyei, 2002)
High-quality interaction
Interactional support
Integrated in functional tasks In line with students task intentions Linked with students current behaviour, needs and level Assigning active role to student and promoting active thinking Differentiated
Learning is
Situated Goal-directed Cumulative
Constructive Cognitive
Individually different (De Corte et al, 2003)
Training teachers
Explicit teaching wont suffice A need for intensive and sustained support
Communication and support networks Providing teacher aids Creating favourable conditions Promoting and supporting teachers professional development
Teacher training
Task-based as well Training in real operating conditions Alernating action and reflection
Different worlds?
Lack of empirical research Task-based language assessment Studies of SLA/FLA in naturalistic settings
Second language studies Study abroad (foreign language students)
Conclusions
If task-based teaching is to make the shift from theory to practice it will be necessary to go beyond the psycholinguistic rationale () and to address the contextual factors that ultimately determine what materials and procedures teachers choose. (Ellis, 2003: 337). Towards a process-oriented approach to classroombased research and teacher training Focus on people, on how they interact during task performance, rather than on tasks alone
References
Berben, M., Van den Branden, K., & Van Gorp, K. (2007). Well see what happens. Tasks on paper and tasks in a multilingual classroom. In K. Van den Branden, K. Van Gorp & M. Verhelst (Eds.), Tasks in Action. Task-based language education from a classroom-based perspective (pp. 32-67). Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36, 81-109. De Corte, E., Verschaffel, L., Entwhistle, N., & Van Merrinboer, J. (eds.) (2003). Powerful learning environments: Unravelling basic components and dimensions. Oxford: Pergamon. De Fraine, B., J. Van Damme, & P. Onghena, (2002). Accountability of schools and teachers: what should be taken into account? In: European Educational Research Journal, 1. 403-428. DeKeyser, R. (2001). Automaticity and automatization. In P. Robinson (ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 125-51). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Drnyei, Z. (2002). The motivational basis of language learning tasks. In P. Robinson (ed.), Individual Differences and Instructed Language Learning (pp. 137-158). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Doughty, C., & Long, M. (2003). Optimal psycholinguistic environments for distance foreign language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 7, 50-80. Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Korthagen, F. (1993). Het logboek als middel om reflectie door a.s. leraren te bevorderen. VELON Tijdschrift, 15, 27-34 Long, M. (1985). A role for instruction in second language acquisition: Task-based language teaching. In K. Hylstenstam & M. Pienemann (eds.), Modelling and assessing second language acquisition (pp. 77-99). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Long, M. (1996), The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition, in W. Ritchie & T. Bhatia (eds.), Handbook of Language Acquisition. Vol. 2: Second Language Acquisition (pp. 413-468). New York: Academic Press. Long, M. (2007). Problems in SLA. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Long, M., & Norris, J. (2000). Task-based teaching and assessment. In M. Byram (ed.), Encyclopedia of language teaching (pp. 597-603). London: Routledge.
References (continued)
Robinson, P. (ed.) (2001). Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schmidt, R. (1998). The centrality of attention in SLA. In J. Brown (ed.), University of Hawaii Working Papers in ESL, 16, 1-34. Honolulu: University of Hawaii. Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (eds.), Input in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 235256). Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In: G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (eds.), Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics: Studies in Honour of H.G. Widdowson. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 125-144. Van den Branden, K. (2006). Task-based language teaching: from theory to practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.