S|||con and Wafer reparat|on

AfLer sLudylng Lhe maLerlal ln Lhls chapLer you wlll be able Lo

1 uescrlbe how raw slllcon ls reflned lnLo semlconducLor grade
slllcon
2 Lxplaln Lhe crysLal sLrucLure and growLh meLhod for
produclng monocrysLal slllcon
3 ulscuss Lhe ma[or defecLs ln slllcon crysLal
4 CuLllne and descrlbe Lhe baslc process sLeps for wafer
preparaLlon sLarLlng from a slllcon lngoL and flnlshlng wlLh a
wafer
Cb[ecLlves
emlconducLorCrade lllcon
Steps to Obtaining Semiconductor Grade Silicon (SGS)
Step Description of Process Reaction
1
Produce metallurgical grade
silicon (MGS) by heating
silica with carbon
SiC (s) SiO
2
(s) Si (l) SiO(g) CO (g)
2
PuriIy MG silicon through a
chemical reaction to produce
a silicon-bearing gas oI
trichlorosilane (SiHCl
3
)
Si (s) 3HCl (g) SiHCl
3
(g) H
2
(g) heat
3
SiHCl
3
and hydrogen react in
a process called Siemens to
obtain pure semiconductor-
grade silicon (SGS)
2SiHCl
3
(g) 2H
2
(g) 2Si (s) 6HCl (g)
Iu reacLor
lPl
3
olycrysLalllne slllcon rod
tom|c Crder of a Crysta|
Structure
Un|t Ce|| |n 3D Structure
DnlL cell
rysLal LrucLure
,lller lndlces of rysLal lanes
Z
x
?
(100)
Z
x
?
(110)
Z
x
?
(111)
W@he processlng characLerlsLlcs and some
maLerlal properLles of slllcon wafers depend on
lLs orlenLaLlon
W@he 111 planes have Lhe hlghesL denslLy of
aLoms on Lhe surface so crysLals grow mosL
easlly on Lhese planes and oxldaLlon occurs aL a
hlgher pace when compared Lo oLher crysLal
planes
W@radlLlonally blpolar devlces are fabrlcaLed ln
111 orlenLed crysLals whereas 100 maLerlals
are preferred for ,C devlces
rysLal defecLs
W olnL defecLs
W ulslocaLlons
W Area/ planar defecLs
W Iolume defecLs
Defects
W olnL defecLs are lmporLanL
ln Lhe klneLlcs of dlffuslon
and oxldaLlon ,oreover Lo
be elecLrlcally acLlve
dopanLs musL occupy
subsLlLuLlonal slLes ln order
Lo lnLroduce an energy
level ln Lhe bandgap
W ny nons|||con atoms
|ncorporated |nto the
|att|ce at e|ther a
subst|tut|ona| or
|nterst|t|a| s|te are
cons|dered po|nt defects
(a) Iacancy defecL
(b) lnLersLlLlal defecL
(c) lrenkel defecL
W D|s|ocat|on defects these are of two
types||ne defect and edge defects
||ne defects
extra p|ane |s added to the crysta| |att|ce
1hese are dynam|c defects 1hat |s they can d|ffuse
under app||ed stress d|ssoc|ate |nto two or more
d|s|ocat|ons or comb|ne w|th other d|s|ocat|ons
W Ldge D|s|ocat|ons
Cccur dur|ng therma| stress on wafer process|ng or
due to excess po|nt defect condensat|on 1hese are
genera||y undes|rab|e because they act as s|nks for
meta|||c |mpur|t|es and a|ter d|ffus|on prof||es
It may a|so occur |f the cove|ent rad|| of the
subst|tut|ona| |mpur|ty |s |ess than or greater than
the rad|us of S| 1h|s may |ead to e|ther expans|on
or compress|on of the |att|ce and hence stress
%rea or p|anar defects are tw|ns and gra|n
boundar|es
%1w|nn|ng represenLs a change ln Lhe crysLal
orlenLaLlon across a Lwln plane such LhaL a mlrror
lmage exlsLs across LhaL plane
%Gra|n boundar|es are more dlsordered Lhan Lwlns
and separaLe gralns of slngle crysLals ln
polycrysLalllne slllcon
%lanar defecLs appear durlng crysLal growLh and
crysLals havlng such defecLs are noL consldered
usable for l manufacLure and are dlscarded
ICLUML DLILC1
WreclplLaLes of lmpurlLy or dopanL aLoms consLlLuLe Lhe
fourLh class of defecLs @he solublllLy of dopanLs varles wlLh
LemperaLure and so lf an lmpurlLy ls lnLroduced aL Lhe
maxlmum concenLraLlon allowed by lLs solublllLy a
supersaLuraLed condlLlon wlll exlsL upon coollng @he crysLal
achleves an equlllbrlum sLaLe by preclplLaLlng Lhe lmpurlLy
aLoms ln excess of Lhe solublllLy level as a second phase
Wrec|p|tates are genera||y undes|rab|e as they act as s|tes
for d|s|ocat|on generat|on D|s|ocat|ons resu|t from the
vo|ume m|smatch between the prec|p|tate and the |att|ce
|nduc|ng a stra|n that |s re||eved by the format|on of
d|s|ocat|ons
rysLal growlng Lechnlques
W Z ,eLhod
W lloaL zone meLhod
Z meLhod
W @he zochralskl(Z) process whlch accounLs for
80 Lo 90 of worldwlde slllcon consumpLlon
conslsLs of dlpplng a small slnglecrysLal seed lnLo
molLen slllcon and slowly wlLhdrawlng Lhe seed
whlle roLaLlng lL slmulLaneously
W @he cruclble ls usually made of quarLz or graphlLe
wlLh a fused slllca llnlng AfLer Lhe seed ls dlpped
lnLo Lhe LC melL Lhe crysLal ls pulled aL a raLe
LhaL mlnlmlzes defecLs and ylelds a consLanL lngoL
dlameLer
rysLal growlng Lheory
W Crowlng crysLal lnvolves a phase change from
so||d||qu|d or gas to crysta|||ne phase Pere ln Z
lLs llquld Lo solld monocomponenL growLh
mechanlsm ls lnvolved
W @he speed of the growth |s dependent upon the
no of s|tes on the face of the crysta| and the
spec|f|cs (therma| conduct|v|t|es therma|
grad|ent at the |nterface etc) of the heat transfer
at the |nterface
W @wo parameLers declde Lhe neL solldlflcaLlon raLe
and lmpurlLy conLenL @hese are ULL k1L and
growth rate
Pow ULL k1L effects
W @he pu|| rate deLermlnes Lhe net so||d|f|cat|on
rate
W @he pull raLe |nf|uences the |ncorporat|on of
|mpur|t|es lnLo Lhe crysLal and ls a facLor of
defect generat|on @he condensaLlon of Lhermal
polnL defecLs(vacancles and lnLersLlLlals ) lnLo
small dlslocaLlons loops occur as Lhe crysLal cools
from Lhe solldlflcaLlon LemperaLure whlch ls a
funcLlon of pull raLe
ow growth rate effects
W Lhe growLh raLe effecLs Lhe |nstantaneous
so||d|f|cat|on rate
W lL ls dependenL upon upon Lhe temp
f|uctuat|ons near the |nterface lL can be lower or
can exceed Lhe neL solldlflcaLlon raLe as
someLlmes reme|t|ng can occur lf Lhls remelLlng
ls noL suppressed Lhen lL can lead Lo defecLs llke
swlrls eLc
W lL effecLs Lhe defecL sLrucLure and dopanL
dlsLrlbuLlon ln a crysLal on a mlcroscoplc scale
W ln large melLs the convect|on forced by the rotat|on |s
often the secondary to the therma| grad|ent caused
by the temperature grad|ent |ead|ng to the therma|
convect|on be|ng a random process and hence
resulLlng ln varlaLlon of Lhlckness of Lhe boundary layer
wlLh respecL Lo Llme @hls resulLs ln radlal dlsLrlbuLlon
of Lhe Lhlckness across Lhe boundary surface
W ull raLe also affecLs Lhe shape of the crysta| as are Lhe
melL radlal LemperaLure gradlenL and crysLal surface
coollng condlLlons
@he Z growLh apparaLus also called a
puller" has followlng subsysLems
W IurnacecruclblesuscepLor(cruclble supporL)
and roLaLlon mechanlsmheaLlng elemenL and
supply
W Crysta| pu|||ng mechan|sm seed shafL or
chalnroLaLlon mecanlsm and seed chuck
W mb|ent contro|gas source flow conLrol
exhausL or vacuum sysLem
W Contro| system mlcroprocessorsensors and
ouLpuLs
rysLal seed
,olLen
polyslllcon
PeaL shleld
WaLer [ackeL
lngle crysLal
slllcon
CuarLz
cruclble
arbon heaLlng
elemenL
rysLal puller
and roLaLlon
mechanlsm
roperLles of Lhe cruclble(used Lo
conLaln Lhe melL)
W lL should be chem|ca||y unreact|ve wlLh molLen l
W |gh me|t|ng po|nttherma| stab|||ty and hardness
W lnexpenslve and reusable
W *unforLunaLely molLen S| d|sso|ves w|th a|most a|| mater|a|s used
for hlgh Lemp eg meLalllc compounds llke @llf used Lhey may lead
Lo meLalllc lmpurlLles l on Lhe oLher hand may lead Lo defecLs
and carbon Lhough belng elecLrlcally lnacLlve may lead Lo carbon
saLuraLed compounds
W lused slllca and slllcon nlLrlde are Lhe opLlons lefL and ouL of Lhese
slllca ls mosLly used
W lllca reacLs wlLh l Lo release slllcon monoxlde as gas Powever
Lhese maLerlals when used may leave oxygen aL Lhe subsLlLuLlonal
and lnLersLlLlal slLes of Lhe crysLal affecLlng Lhe elecLrlcal properLles
of Lhe maLerlal
roperLles of suscepLor
W lL also provldes for beLLer Lhermal condlLlons
W CraphlLe ls used for consLrucLlon because of
hlgh Lemp properLles and should be of hlgh
purlLy Lo prevenL conLamlnaLlon from
lmpurlLles
hamber properLles
W Laslly acceslble for malnLanence and cleanlng
W AlrLlghL Lo prevenL conLamlnaLlon
W lLs deslgn should noL allow any parL of Lhe
chamber Lo become so hoL LhaL lLs vapor
pressure may become source of conLamlnaLlon
W PoLLesL parLs should be waLer cooled lnsulaLlon
beLween chamber walls and heaLer
W 8eslsLance or lnducLlve heaLlng ls used Lo melL
Lhe charge
rysLal pulllng mechanlsm
W hould have mln vlbraLlon and greaL preclslon
Lo conLrol Lwo parameLrs pull raLe and crysLal
roLaLlon
W eed holder and pulllng mechanlsm should be
able Lo orlenL Lhe crysLal perpendlcular Lo
melL surface
W mb|ent contro|1he process should be
carrled ouL ln vacuum or lnerL gas(hellum or
argon) Lo proLecL graphlLe from oxygenLo
prevenL Lhe gas around Lo reacL wlLh melL and
Lo remove Lhe C
W Contro| systemshould be of closed loop Lype
Lo conLrol process parameLers such as
LemperaLure crysLal dlapull raLe and
roLaLlon speed
lllcon lngoL Crown by Z ,eLhod
Z rysLal uller
lloaL Zone ,eLhod
W ln Lhls a rod of casL poly slllcon ls held ln a verLlcal poslLlon and
roLaLed wh||e a me|ted zone |s s|ow|y passed from the bottom of
the rod to the top
W @he melLed reglon ls heaLed and moved Lhrough Lhe rod sLarLlng
from a seed crysLal LhaL lnlLlaLes crysLalllzaLlon
W @he lmpurlLles Lend Lo segregaLe ln Lhe molLen porLlon so LhaL Lhe
solldlfylng slllcon ls purlfled ln conLrasL Lo Z oxygen ls noL
lnLroduced as Lhe l ls noL held ln an oxygen conLalnlng cruclble
W AlLhough lL ls an expenslve process and ls used for smaller dla
lngoLs slllcon produced by Lhls meLhod ls free from oxygen and
oLher lmpurlLles
W ,ulLlple passes of Lhe molLen zone can be used Lo produce
reslsLlvlLy above 104 ohm cm
8l
Cas lnleL (lnerL)
,olLen zone
@ravellng
8l coll
olycrysLalllne
rod (slllcon)
eed crysLal
lnerL gas ouL
huck
huck
lloaL Zone rysLal CrowLh
300 mm
200 mm
130 mm
123 mm
100 mm
73 mm
3J 4J 3J 6J 8J 12J
Wafer ulameLer @rends
88 dle
200mm wafer
232 dle
300mm wafer
lncrease ln number of hlps
on Larger Wafer ulameLer
lllcon wafer preperaLlon
W l ls hard and brlLLle maLerlal @he sulLable
maLerlal for cuLLlng and shaplng lL ls lndusLrlal
grade dlamond alLhough l and Alumlnlum
oxlde can also be used
W onverslon of lllcon lngoLs lnLo pollshed
wafers normally requlres 6 machlnlng
operaLlons2 chemlcal operaLlons and one or
Lwo pollshlng operaLlons
SING Lhe exLreme Lop and boLLom porLlons of Lhe lngoL are cuL off LhaL fall Lhe
reslsLlvlLy and perfecLlon evaluaLlon @he cuLLlngs are elLher senL Lo be recycled or can be
used as ,C
SUkICL GkINDINGueflnes Lhe dlameLer of Lhe maLerlal as lngoLs do have some exLra
maLerlal added A roLaLlng cuLLlng Lool makes mulLlple passes down Lhe roLaLlng lngoL
unLll Lhe chosen dla ls aLLalned @he lngoL surface ls ground Lo produce a consLanL exacL
dla whlch may be 100130 or 300 mm
GkCUNDING A crysLallographlc orlenLaLlon flaL ls also grounded along Lhe lengLh of Lhe
lngoL @he Lwo Lypes of flaLs are Primory f/ot whlch ls relaLlve Lo a speclflc crysLal
dlrecLlon and serves as a mechanlcal locaLor Lo poslLlon Lhe wafer and Lo orlenL Lhe l
devlce relaLlve Lo Lhe crysLal 5econdory f/ots whlch serve Lo flnd Lhe orlenLaLlon and
conducLlvlLy Lype@ he orlenLaLlon flaLs serves as a useful reference plane for Lhe varlous
devlce processes orrecL orlenLaLlon of Lhe surface of Lhe wafers wlLh respecL Lo Lhe
crysLal planes ls lmporLanL for Lhe successful eplLaxlal growLh a process Lo be done laLer
SLICING lL helps ln deLermlnlng four wafer parameLers surface orlenLaLlon LhlcknessLaper
and bow @he lngoL ls Lhen sllced uslng a large dlameLer sLalnless sLeel saw blade wlLh
lndusLrlal dlamonds embedded lnLo Lhe lnner dla uLLlng edge @he blade ls moved
relaLlve Lo Lhe sLaLlonery lngoL @hls wlll produce clrcular sllces or wafers LhaL are abouL
600 Lo 1000um Lhlck
LING CLk1ICN lL ls performed under pressure uslng a mlxLure of alumlnum oxlde
and glycerln ln order Lo produce a wafer wlLh flaLness unlform Lo wlLhln 2 um Lnsures
surface flaLness for sLeps llke phoLollLhography
LDGL CCN1CUkING where a radlus ls ground on Lhe rlm of Lhe wafer lL develop fewer
edge chlps durlng devlce fabrlcaLlon and ald ln conLrolllng Lhe bulld up of phoreslsL aL Lhe
wafer edge
Wh||e s||c|ng the wafers |ts surface and edges are heav||y damaged be|ng on the
order of 10 um deep and can be removed by
chem|ca| etch|ng lL lnvolves ulpplng and roLaLlng Lhe wafers(ln baLches of 10)ln an Lank conLalnlng an
acld mlxLure conslsLlng of nlLrlc acld Lo oxldlze Lhe surface and hydrofluorlc acld Lo dlssolve Lhe
oxldlzed producLs @he eLch raLe depends on Lhe surface orlenLaLlon @he reacLlon ls apparenLly
domlnaLed by Lhe no of dangllng bonds presenL on Lhe surface
@hen Lhe wafers undergo a no of po||sh|ng steps Lo ensure a surface smooLhness flaLness
and wlLh mlnlmal local slope surface on whlch Lhe devlces can be phoLoengraved
Along wlLh Lhls Lhe surface should be conLamlnaLlon and damage free
lL lnvolves a pollshlng pad made of arLlflclal fabrlc such as a polyesLer wafers are mounLed
on a flxLure pressed agalnsL Lhe pad under hlgh pressure and roLaLed relaLlve Lo Lhe
pad A mlxLure of pollshlng slurry and waLer drlpped on Lo Lhe pad does Lhe pollshlng
llnally Lhe wafer ls sub[ecLed to CLMICL CLLNING Lo remove organlc fllms heavy
meLalks and parLlculaLes ommonly used are aqueous mlxLure of nP4CPP2C2PL
P2C2 and P2C4P2C2 all of Lhe mlxLures are efflclenL ln remonlng Lhe meLalllc
lmpurlLles buL LP2C2 ls besL @hls ls Lhen followed by a dlp ln hydroflourlc acld Lo
prevenL Lhe lmpurlLles LhaL geL added due Lo chemlcally grown oxlde
Usua||y on|y one s|de of the wafer undergoes these steps wh||e other undergoes on|y
|app|ng to ensure f|atness and para||e||sm
rysLal CrowLh rysLal CrowLh
haplng haplng
Wafer llclng Wafer llclng
Wafer Lapplng and
Ldge Crlnd
Wafer Lapplng and
Ldge Crlnd
LLchlng LLchlng
ollshlng ollshlng
leanlng leanlng
lnspecLlon lnspecLlon
ackaglng ackaglng
8aslc rocess Leps for Wafer reparaLlon
LecLure problems
W ulscuss Lhe effecLs of oxygen and carbon
elemenLs ln Lhe crysLal growLh
W ulfferenL eLchlng maLerlals
W CeLLerlng LreaLmenL
*reference 8ook on ILl @echnology by , ze
Cood Luck