Is |t poss|b|e that two Is |t poss|b|e that two

peop|e see the same peop|e see the same

th|ng but |nterpret |t th|ng but |nterpret |t
d|fferent|y? d|fferent|y?
L8CL1lCn
The key to understand perception is to recognize that it is a
unique %#!#%% of the situation, not an exact
recording of it.
In short !#!% is a very compIex
cognitive(understanding) process
that yieIds a unique picture of the worId,
a picture that may be
quite different from reaIity.
L8CL1lCn
ognitive (reIating to mentaI process invoIved in
knowing, Iearning, and understanding ) process of
perception and its appIication
through impression management.
The cognitions are basicaIIy bits of information, and the
cognitive processes invoIve the ways in which peopIe
process the information. In other words, the cognitive
process suggest that, Iike computers, humans are
information processors.
LkCL1ICN
A process by wh|ch
|nd|v|dua|s organ|ze and
|nterpret the|r sensory
|mpress|ons |n order to g|ve
mean|ng to the|r
env|ronment
owever, today's complex computers are very
simple when compared with
human information processing.
People's individual differences and uniqueness are
largely the results of cognitive process.
!#!TION IS IM!O#TANT !#OSS IN
UND#STANDING O#G. BAVIO#.
kecogn|t|on of the d|fference between
the perceptua| wor|d
and the rea| wor|d
|s v|ta| to the understand|ng of
org behav|or
ensat|on versus ercept|on ensat|on versus ercept|on
There is usuaIIy a misunderstanding about
the reIationship between
SNSATION
(Feeling, a state of excited emotion)
and
!#!TION
(Act, faculty of grasping / understanding
through mind or senses; an intuition)
BehavioraI scientists generaIIy agree
that peopIe's reaIity (the worId around
them) depends on their senses.
owever, the raw sensory input is not
enough.
They must aIso process these sensory data and make
sense out of them in order to understand the worId
around them.
Therefore, the starting point
in the study of !erception
shouId cIarify the reIationship
between !erception and
Sensation
1he naLure and lmporLance of L8CL1lCn
Many of the time perceptuaI worId of the manager is quite different from
the perceptuaI worId of the subordinate, and both may be very different
from reaIity.
f this is the case , what can be done about it from the
management standpoint?
The best answer seems to be that a better understanding of the
concepts invoIved shouId be deveIoped. Direct appIications and
techniques shouId IogicaIIy foIIow compIete understanding. The pIace
to start is to cIearIy understand the difference between
sensation and perception and have a working knowIedge of
major cognitive sub processes of perception.
D A # K
PreconceIved
Ideas are tbe
Iocks on tbe
door to wIsdom.
,erry 8rowne
The sub processes of !erception
$T&&$ OR $T&TON PER$ON
EXTERN ENVRONENT
$ensual $timulation
Physical Environment
Cfflce
lacLory lloor
8esearch
laboraLory
SLore
cllmaLe
$ociocultural Environment
,anagemenL sLyles
values
ulscrlmlnaLlon
Confrontat|on
Cf speclflc
sLlmulus
(supervlsor or
new procedure)
keg|strat|on
Cf sLlmulus
(sensory and
neuLral
mechanlsms)
Interpretat|on
Cf sLlmulus
(,oLlvaLlon
learnlng and
ersonallLy)
Ieedback
lor clarlflcaLlon
(klnesLheLlc or
psychologlcal)
8ehav|or
(overL such as
rushlng off or
coverL such as an
aLLlLude)
Consequence
(8elnforcemenL/
unlshmenL or
some
organlzaLlonal
ouLcome)
Now we come to the most relevant application of perception concepts to OB.
The issue of person perception.... %he perceptions people form
about each other.
Attribution theory Attribution theory
Attr|but|on theory has been proposed to deve|op Attr|but|on theory has been proposed to deve|op
exp|anat|ons of the ways |n wh|ch we [udge peop|e exp|anat|ons of the ways |n wh|ch we [udge peop|e
d|fferent|y depend|ng on what mean|ng we attr|bute to d|fferent|y depend|ng on what mean|ng we attr|bute to
a g|ven behav|or a g|ven behav|or
FATO#S TAT INFLUN
!#!TION
Iactors |n the perce|ver
Att|tude
Mot|ves
Interests
Lxper|ence
Lxpectat|ons
Iactors |n the target
Nove|ty
Mot|on
ounds
|ze
8ackground
rox|m|ty
|m||ar|ty
Iactors |n the s|tuat|on
t|me
Work sett|ng
oc|a| sett|ng
!#!% !#!%
lnLerpreLaLlon ls heavlly lnfluenced
by personal characLerlsLlcs of Lhe
lndlvldual percelver
1he
erce|ver
A11I1UDL
MC1IVL
IN1LkL1
LkLkILNCL
LkLC1A1ICN
1he
1arget
Loud peop|e are more ||ke|y to be not|ced than are
qu|t ones
Lxtreme|y attract|ve or unattract|ve |nd|v|dua|s are more
||ke|y to be not|ced
1he
|tuat|on
1he context wh|ch we see ob[ects or events |s
|mportant
L|ements |n the surround|ng env|ronment |nf|uence
our percept|on
Iactors Inf|uenc|ng ercept|on
1he erce| ver
lnLerpreLaLlon ls heavlly lnfluenced
by personal characLerlsLlcs of Lhe
lndlvldual percelver
1he personal characLerlsLlcs affecLlng
percepLlon are
8aslcally Lhe Lheory suggesL LhaL when we observe an
lndlvldual's behavlor we aLLempL Lo deLermlne wheLher
lL was lnLernally or exLernally caused
1hese deLermlnaLlons however depends largely on
Lhree facLors
D|st|nct|veness
cons|stency
consensus
Attribution theory Attribution theory
Observation Interpretation
Attribution (auses)
Ind|v|dua| 8ehav|or
D|st|nct|veness
Consensus
Cons|stency
Lxterna|
Interna|
Lxterna|
Lxterna|
Interna|
Interna|
Je [udge people dlfferenLly
uependlng on whaL meanlng we aLLrlbuLe
Lo a glven behavlor
Jhen we observe a behavlor
LA1L CC,lnC
we aLLempL Lo deLermlne wheLher lL was lnLernally
or LxLernally
ln1L8nALL? JlLhln Lhe conLrol of lndlvldual
(parLylng laLegeLLlng up laLelaLe comlng)
Lx1L8nALL? CuL of Lhe conLrol of lndlvldual
(an accldenLln[urylaLe)
DI1INC1IVLNL
Late com|ng on|y or d|sp|ay s|m||ar types of behav|or
CCNLNU
Cthers who take the same route are they a|so |ate ?
CCNI1LNC
kout|ne or unusua|] casua| behav|or
FundamentaI Attribution rror
The tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence
of internal factors when making judgment about
the behaviors of others.
Sales ,anager prone Lo
aLLrlbuLe sales agenLs Lo
lazlnessraLher Lhan Lo
lnnovaLlve producL llne
lnLroduced by a compeLlLor
SLF S#VING BIAS
The tendency for individuals
to attribute their own success
to internal factors while
putting the blame for failure
on external factors.
L8SCn L8CL1lCn
,AklnC !uuCL,Ln1S A8Cu1 C1PL8S
LLLC1IVL
LkCL1ICN
eop|e se|ect|ve|y
|nterpret what they see
on the bas|s of the|r
|nterests background
exper|ence and
att|tude
nALLC LIILC1
Draw|ng a genera|
|mpress|on about an
|nd|v|dua| on the bas|s
of a s|ng|e character
CCN1kA1 LIILC1
Lva|uat|ons of a
person's character|st|cs
that are affected by
compar|son w|th other
peop|e recent|y
encountered who rank
h|gher or |ower on the
same character|st|cs
kCILC1ICN
Attr|but|ng one's
own character|st|cs
to other peop|e
1LkLC1ING
Iudg|ng someone on
the bas|s of one's
percept|on of the
group to wh|ch that
person be|ongs
SPC81 Cu1 ln !uuClnC C1PL8S
LLLC1IVL LkCL1ICN
Any characLerlsLlc LhaL makes a
person/ob[ecL/evenL CuLsLand
(slnce we can'L observe everyLhlng golng around us we
engage ln selecLlve percepLlon)
nALC LIILC1
Jhen we draw a general lmpresslon abouL an
lndlvldual Cn 1PL 8ASlS Cl slngle
characLerlsLlc such as
lnLelllgenL/soclablllLy/smarL
CCN1kA1 LIILC1
Comparlson wlLh oLher
people's characLerlsLlc
kCILC1ICN
ALLrlbuLlon of one's own
characLerlsLlcs Lo oLher people
1LkLC1ING
!udglng someone on Lhe basls of
one's percepLlon of Lhe group Lo
whlch Lhe person belongs
Why |s ercept|on |mportant |n the study of C8? Why |s ercept|on |mportant |n the study of C8?
|mp|y because peop|es behav|or |s based on
the|r percept|on of what rea||ty |s
not on rea||ty |tse|f
pec|f|c
app||cat|ons |n the
organ|zat|ons
Lmp|oyment
Interv|ew
erformance
Lxpectat|on
erformance
Lva|uat|on
Lmp|oyee
Lffort
Lmp|oyee
Loya|ty
n nsurance agent said, " Do you know
that someone dies every time breathe ?
is prospect said, "Try a good
mouthwash!
lndlvlduals Lhlnk reason before Lhey acL
lndlvlduals make cholces from Lwo or more alLernaLlves
1op managers deLermlne Lhelr organlzaLlon's goalswhaL
producLs or servlces Lo offer how nesL Lo flnance operaLlons or
where Lo locaLe a new manufacLurlng planL
,lddle and lower managemenL deLermlne producLlon schedules
selecL new employees declde how pay rlses Lo be allocaLed
Cf course maklng declslon ls noL Lhe sole provlnce of managers non
managemenL employees also make declslon LhaL affecL Lhelr [obs and
Lhe organlzaLlons
Dec|s|on mak|ng |s an essent|a| funct|on of management
1ogether w|th |eadersh|p and commun|cat|on |t heads the ||st of
those ab|||t|es wh|ch as manager you shou|d be seek|ng to
deve|op
Dec|s|on mak|ng |s
a|most un|versa||y
def|ned as
"CnCCING
8L1WLLN
AL1LkNA1IVL#
" A dec|s|on |s a [udgment
or cho|ce between two or
more a|ternat|ves and
ar|ses |n an |nf|n|te
number of s|tuat|ons
from the reso|ut|on of a
prob|em to the
|mp|ementat|on of a
course of act|on#
ANAL1ICAL
DIkLC1IVL 8LnAVICkAL
CCNCL1UAL
IG
OW
W OF TNKNG
1olerance
lor
amblgulLy
DISION - STYL MODL
Ana|yz|ng 1he Dec|s|on rocess
(kat|ona| Dec|s|on Mak|ng)
Undertake Ana|ys|s
Ident|fy Issues
Lva|uates Cpt|ons
Ident|fy cho|ces
Imp|ement |ans
What
exact|y has
to be
dec|ded?
What are the
a|ternat|ves?
What are
the pros and
cons?
Wh|ch
a|ternat|ve
|s the best?
What act|on
needs to be
taken?
Most d|scuss|ons of the dec|s|on mak|ng process break down |nto a
ser|es of step
Ior the most part |og|c can be traced to the |deas deve|oped by nerbert A
|mon who conceptua||zes three ma[or phase |n |n the dec|s|on mak|ng
process
IN1LLLIGLNCL
AC1IVI1
Searchlng Lhe
envlronmenL
DLIGN AC1IVI1
lnvenLlng /
developlng Lhe
posslble course of
acLlon
CnCICL AC1IVI1
SelecLlng a
parLlcular course
of acLlon
Closely relaLed Lo Lhese phases buL wlLh more emplrlcal basls are Lhe sLages
of declslon maklng by ,lnLzberg
luLn1lllCA1lCn PASL
18ecognlLlon
2 dlagnosls
uLvLLC,Ln1 PASL
1Search
2ueslgn
SLLLC1lCn PASL
1 !udgmenL
2 Analysls
3 8argalnlng
CLASSlCAL uLClSlCn ,AklnC 1PLC8?
CperaLed under Lhe assumpLlon of raLlonallLy and cerLalnLy
1he declslon maker follows a loglcal or sLepby sLep sequence Pe ls compleLely
raLlonal he has clear unconfllcLlng ob[ecLlves and a perfecL knowledge of Lhe
problem All lnformaLlon ls gaLhered and all posslble soluLlons are courses
consldered
ln managemenL Lheory Lhe hallmark of Lhe raLlonal manager ls LhaL he makes a
declslon beLween cholces ln Lerms of Lhelr consequences or ouLcome
8LPAvlC8AL uLClSlCn ,AklnC 1PLC8?
8ehavloral declslonmaklng LheorlsL argue LhaL lndlvldual have cognlLlve llmlLaLlons
and because of Lhe complexlLy organlzaLlons and Lhe world ln general Lhey musL acL
ln slLuaLlons where uncerLalnLy prevalls and ln whlch lnformaLlon ls ofLen amblguous
and lncompleLe
The continuum (series) of decision making behavior
Lconom|c
kat|ona||ty
|mon's
8ounded
kat|ona||ty
mode|
Iudgmenta|
neur|st|cs
Mode|
oc|a|
Mode|
Mode|s of
8ehav|ora| Dec|s|on Mak|ng
euristic = method of learning involves discovery and problem solving, using reasoning and past experience.
A81lClA1lvL uLClSlCn ,AklnC 1LCPnlCuLS
ICkMAL
Ck
INICkMAL
INDIVIDUAL
Ck
GkCU
1C1AL
Ck
Ak1IAL
CkLA1IVI1 DLCIICN MAkING
GkCU DLCIICN MAkING
ome t|ps for Dec|s|on Mak|ng
Lxam|ne every
a|ternat|ve
c|ose|y before
mak|ng a
dec|s|on
Cons|der the
|mp||cat|ons of
each dec|s|on
they can be
huge
1ry to foresee
and prepare for
any changes |n a
so|ut|on
A|ways ask
what can go
wrong when
you are mak|ng
a dec|s|on
A|ways cons|der
a|| the poss|b|e
outcomes when
mak|ng a
dec|s|on
Assess your
dec|s|onmak|ng
ab|||t|es and
str|ve to
|mprove them
Never
postpone
v|ta|
dec|s|ons
make them
qu|ck|y
8e aware of
who w||| be
affected by
your dec|s|on
Lncourage
peop|e to
part|c|pate |n
dec|s|ons to get
better resu|ts
Cons|der a
dec|s|on from
as many
d|fferent ang|es
as poss|b|e 8e d|sorgan|zed
when generat|ng
|deas organ|zed
|n deve|op|ng
them
8e Creat|ve
ow re Decisions ctually ade n organizations?
Are dec|s|ons made |n organ|zat|ons are rat|ona|?
Most s|gn|f|cant dec|s|ons are made by [udgment rather
than by a def|ned prescr|pt|ve mode|?
n
C
W
?
8ounded kat|ona||ty
,aklng declslons by
consLrucLlng slmpllfled models
LhaL exLracL Lhe essenLlal
feaLures from problems wlLhouL
capLurlng all Lhelr complexlLy
Common 8|ases Lrrors
1o mlnlmlze efforLs and
avold dlfflculL Lradeoffs
managers Lend Lo rely Loo
heavlly on experlence
lmpulse guL feellngs and
convenlenL rules of Lhumb
Lsca|at|on of
comm|tment
SLaylng wlLh a declslon
even when Lhere ls clear
evldence LhaL lL ls wrong
W|nner's Curse
A declslon maklng
dlcLum LhaL argues LhaL
Lhe wlnnlng parLlclpanLs
ln an aucLlon Lyplcally
pay Loo much for Lhe
wlnnlng lLem
ersona||ty ]
Gender]Crgan|zat|ona|
constra|nts
Against AII Odds
A frlend of mlne who ls a fllghL aLLendanL had [usL reLurned
from a hollday ln Lhe mounLalns uurlng Lhls maglcal week of
hlgh peaks blue skles and sweeL smelllng plnes she fell ln love
wlLh a very ellglble bachelor Pe owned and operaLed a caLLle
ranch and llved ln a log cabln
AL Lhe end of Lhe week ,r Jonderful proposed Jell! ,y
frlend has never been good aL maklng up her mlnd(declslon)
and she reLurned home and Lo her [ob feellng LhaL she would
some how be gulded
1he nexL day ln fllghL she found herself wonderlng whaL Lo do
1o perk up she sLopped ln Lhe LolleL and splashed a blL of cool
waLer on her face Suddenly Lhere was some Lurbulence and a
slgn llL up" LLASL 8L1u8nLu 1C 1PL CA8ln"
She dldLhe one back ln Lhe mounLaln