Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chapter 11
Inventory
Management
2
Types of Inventories
Work in progress
Current students
Finished-goods inventories
(manufacturing firms) or merchandise (retail
stores)
Graduating students
Replacement parts, tools, & supplies
Goods-in-transit to warehouses or customers
Students on leave
3
Functions of Inventory
To permit operations
4
Inventory level
Low or high
Inventory turnover
Reasonable estimates of
Holding costs
Ordering costs
Shortage costs
A classification system
Effective Inventory Management
9
ABC Classification System
Classifying inventory according to some
measure of importance and allocating control
efforts accordingly.
Importance measure= price*annual sales
A
A - very important
B
B - mod. important
C
C - least important
Annual
$ volume
of items
A
A
B
B
C
C
High
Low
Few
Many
Number of Items
10
Inventory Models
Assumptions:
No quantity discounts
Economic Production Quantity Assumptions
24
Economic Production Quantity
I
n
v
e
n
t
o
r
y
L
e
v
e
l
Usage
Usage
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
&
U
s
a
g
e
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
&
U
s
a
g
e
25
Average inventory held
Q/p
D
p-D
Q/D
Time
Time
(Q/p)(p-D)
(Q/p)(p-D)
Average inventory held=(1/2)(Q/p)(p-D)
Average inventory held=(1/2)(Q/p)(p-D)
Total cost=(1/2)(Q/p)(p-D)H+(D/Q)S
Total cost=(1/2)(Q/p)(p-D)H+(D/Q)S
D p
p
H
DS
Q
2
26
EPQ example
Demand, D = 12,000 computers per year.
p=20,000 per year. Holding cost, H = 100 per
item per year. Fixed cost, S = $4,000/order.
Find EPQ.
EPQ = EOQ*sqrt(p/(p-D))
=979.79*sqrt(20/8)=1549 computers
27
3. All unit quantity discount
Cost/Unit
$3
$2.96
$2.92
Order Quantity
5,000 10,000
Two versions
Two versions
Constant H
Constant H
Proportional H
Proportional H
28
3.1.Total Cost with Constant Carrying Costs
EOQ
Quantity
T
o
t
a
l
C
o
s
t
TC
a
TC
c
TC
b
Decreasing
Price
Annual demand*discount
Annual demand*discount
29
3.1.Total Cost with Constant Carrying Costs
EOQ
Quantity
T
o
t
a
l
C
o
s
t
TC
a
TC
c
TC
b
Decreasing
Price
Annual demand*discount
Annual demand*discount
30
Example Scenario 1
Q*=EOQ
Quantity
T
o
t
a
l
C
o
s
t
a
a
b
b
c
c
Price a > Price b > Price c Price a > Price b > Price c
TC
a
TC
c
TC
b
31
Example Scenario 2
EOQ
Quantity
T
o
t
a
l
C
o
s
t
a
a
b
b
c
c
Price a > Price b > Price c Price a > Price b > Price c
TC
a
TC
c
TC
b
Q*
32
Example Scenario 3
EOQ
Quantity
T
o
t
a
l
C
o
s
t
TC
a
TC
c
TC
b
a
a
b
b
c
c
Price a > Price b > Price c Price a > Price b > Price c
Q*
33
Example Scenario 4
Q*=EOQ
Quantity
T
o
t
a
l
C
o
s
t
TC
a
TC
c
TC
b
a
a
b
b
c
c
Price a > Price b > Price c Price a > Price b > Price c
34
3.1. Finding Q with all units discount with
constant holding cost
Note all the price ranges have the same EOQ
Note all the price ranges have the same EOQ
.
.
Stop if EOQ=Q1 is in the lowest cost range (highest
Stop if EOQ=Q1 is in the lowest cost range (highest
quantity range), otherwise continue towards quantity
quantity range), otherwise continue towards quantity
break points which give lower costs
break points which give lower costs
Quantity
T
o
t
a
l
C
o
s
t
1
1
2
2
H
DS
Q
2
1
35
All-units quantity discounts
Constant holding cost
A popular shoe store sells 8000 pairs per year. The
fixed cost of ordering shoes from the distribution
center is $15 and holding costs are taken as
$12.5 per shoe per year. The per unit purchase
costs from the distribution center is given as
C
3
=60, if 0 < Q < 50
C
2
=55, if 50 <= Q < 150
C
1
=50, if 150 <= Q
where Q is the order size. Determine the optimal
order quantity.
36
Solution
There are three ranges for lot sizes in this problem:
(0, q
2
=50),
(q
2
=50, q
1
=150)
(q
1
=150,infinite).
Holding costs in all there ranges of shoe prices
are given as H=12.5,
EOQ is not feasible in the lowest price range because
138.6 < 150.
The order quantity q
1
=150 is a candidate with cost
TC(150)=8000(50)+8000(15)/150+(12.5)(150)/2
=401,900
Let us go to a higher cost level of (q
2
=50, q
1
=150).
EOQ=138.6 is in the appropriate range, so it is another
candidate with cost
TC(138.6)=8000(55)+8000(15)/138.6+(12.5)(138.6)/2
=441,732
Since TC(150) < TC(132.1), Q=150 is the optimal solution.
Remark: In these computations, we do not need to compute
TC(50), why? Because TC(50) >= TC(132.1).
6 . 138
5 . 12
) 8000 )( 15 ( 2
EOQ
37
3.2. Summary of finding Q with all units discount
with proportional holding cost
Quantity
T
o
t
a
l
C
o
s
t
1
1
1
1
2
H
DS
Q
Note each price range has a different EOQ. Note each price range has a different EOQ.
Stop if Q1=EOQ of the lowest price feasible Stop if Q1=EOQ of the lowest price feasible
Otherwise continue towards higher costs until an EOQ Otherwise continue towards higher costs until an EOQ
becomes feasible. becomes feasible.
In each price range, evaluate the lowest cost In each price range, evaluate the lowest cost
.
.
Lowest cost is either at an EOQ or price break quantity Lowest cost is either at an EOQ or price break quantity
Pick the minimum cost among all evaluated Pick the minimum cost among all evaluated
Example
Example
: Q
: Q
1 1
feasible stop
feasible stop
38
3.2. Finding Q with all units discount with
proportional holding cost
Quantity
T
o
t
a
l
C
o
s
t
1
1
1
1
2
H
DS
Q
2
2
2
H
DS
Q
2
2 Example Example: Q : Q
1 1
infeasible, Q infeasible, Q
2 2
feasible, Break point 1 is feasible, Break point 1 is
selected since TC selected since TC
1 1
< TC < TC
2 2
39
3.2. Finding Q with all units discount with
proportional holding cost
Quantity
T
o
t
a
l
C
o
s
t
1
1
Stop if 1 is feasible, otherwise
Stop if 1 is feasible, otherwise
continue towards higher costs until a
continue towards higher costs until a
EOQ becomes feasible.
EOQ becomes feasible.
Evaluate
Evaluate
cost at all alternatives
cost at all alternatives
2
2
40
All-units quantity discounts
Proportional holding cost
A popular shoe store sells 8000 pairs per year. The
fixed cost of ordering shoes from the distribution
center is $15 and holding costs are taken as 25%
of the shoe costs. The per unit purchase costs
from the distribution center is given as
C
3
=60, if 0 < Q < 50
C
2
=55, if 50 <= Q < 150
C
1
=50, if 150 <= Q
where Q is the order size. Determine the optimal
order quantity.
41
Solution
There are three ranges for lot sizes in this problem:
(0, q
2
=50),
(q
2
=50, q
1
=150)
(q
1
=150,infinite).
Holding costs in there ranges of shoe prices
are given as
H
3
=(0.25)60=15,
H
2
=(0.25)55=13.75
H
1
=(0.25)50=12.5.
EOQ
1
is not feasible because 138.6 < 150.
The order quantity q
1
=150 is a candidate with cost
TC(150)=8000(50)+8000(15)/150+(0.25)(50)(150)/2
=401,900
Let us go to a higher cost level of (q
2
=50, q
1
=150).
EOQ
2
=132.1 is in the appropriate range, so it is another candidate with
cost
TC(132.1)=8000(55)+8000(15)/132.1+(0.25)(55)(132.1)/2
=441,800
Since TC(150) < TC(132.1), Q=150 is the optimal solution.
We do not need to compute TC(50) or EOQ
3
, why?
6 . 138
5 . 12
) 8000 )( 15 ( 2
1 . 132
75 . 13
) 8000 )( 15 ( 2
1
2
EOQ
EOQ
42
Types of inventories (stocks) by function
Deterministic demand case
Anticipation stock
Cycle stock
Safety stock
Stock against demand variations
43
4. When to Reorder with EOQ Ordering
+ + + + + + + + +
CSL
CSL
CSL
49
DLT : Demand during lead time
LT and demand may be uncertain.
2 2 2
2
1
1
) (
time lead during demand the of Variance
) )( ( ) (
time lead during demand the of value Expected
DLT LT D
LT
i
i
LT
i
i
D L D Var
D L D E
+
LT
D
L
D
50
Reorder Point
ROP
Risk of
a stockout
Service level
Probability of
no stockout
Expected
demand
Safety
stock
0 z
Quantity
z-scale
ROP = E(DLT) + z
ROP = E(DLT) + z
DLT DLT
51
Finding safety stock from cycle service
level CSL
SL) normsinv(C
SL) normsinv(C
variable normal Standard : z ) (
) ) , ( ( ) (
2
DLT
DLT
DLT
DLT
ss D L ROP
D L ROP
D L ROP
z P
ROP D L Normal P ROP DLT P CSL
Note we use normal density for the demand
Note we use normal density for the demand
during lead time
during lead time
The excel function normsinv has default values of 0 and 1 for the mean and
standard deviation. Defaults are used unless these values are specified.
52
Example: Safety inventory vs. Lead time
variability
D = 2,500/day;
D
= 500
L = 7 days; CSL = 0.90
Normsinv(0.9)=1.3, either from table or Excel
If
LT
=0,
DLT
=sqrt(7)*500=1323
ss=1323*normsinv(0.9)=1719.8
ROP=(D)(L)+ss=17500+1719.8
If
LT
=1,
DLT
=sqrt(7*500*500+2500*2500*1)=2828
ss=2828*normsinv(0.9)=3676
ROP=(D)(L)+ss=17500+3676
53
Expected shortage per cycle
ROP D
D
dD D f ROP D
ROP DLT E
Ex:
4
1
4
1
10)} - (11 max{0,
4
2
10)} - (10 max{0,
4
1
10)} - (9 max{0,
) ( )} (d )} ( max{0, shortage Expected
Shortage? Expected ,
1/4 prob with 11
2/4 prob with 10
1/4 prob with 9
, 10
11
10 d
3
1 i
3 3
2 2
1 1
+ +
'
d D P ROP p ROP d
p d
p d
p d
D ROP
i i
54
Expected shortage per cycle
If we assume that DLT is normal,
3. - 11 Table use ) ( )) , 0 (max( then Let z E ROP DLT E
L D ROP
z
DLT
DLT
2 170 - 172
) 10 ( 10
2
10
6
1
) 12 ( 10
2
12
6
1
10
2 6
1
6
1
) 10 ( shortage Expected
Shortage? Expected ), 12 , 6 ( , 10
2 2
12
10
2
12
10
,
_
,
_
D
D
D
D
D
dD D
Uniform D ROP
Ex:
55
Example: Finding expected shortage per cycle
Suppose that the demand during lead time has
expected value 100 and stdev 30, find the
expected shortage if ROP=120.
z=(120-100)/30=0.66.
E(z)=0.153 from Table 11-3.
Expected shortage = 30*0.153=4.59
56
Fill rate
In a cycle
57
Example: computing the fill rate
Suppose that the demand during lead time has
expected value 100 and stdev 30, find the
expected shortage if ROP=120. Compute the fill
rate if order sizes are 200. Compute the annual
expected shortages if there are 12 order cycles
per year.
Expected shortage per cycle=4.59 from the last
example.
Fill rate = 1-4.59/20=0.7705
Annual expected shortage=12*4.59=55.08.
58
Determinants of the Reorder Point
Ordering
Packing
Shipping costs
,
_
+
demand stdev demand mean
C C
C
Q
C C
C
Q Demand P CSL
o u
u
o u
u
_ , _ , norminv
d, distribute normally is demand the If
slide. next the See
917 . 0
5 55
55
) (
*
*
68
Optimal Order Quantity
without Normal Demands
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
4 6 8
1
0
1
2
1
4
1
6
Cumulative
Probability
Optimal Order Quantity = 13(00)
0.917
69
Costly to maintain
Wise strategy
Delayed postponement
Operations Strategy