1nL A1MCSnLkL CI LAk1n

Atmosphere |s made a|most ent|re|y of N|trogen and Cxygen

Cther gases and part|c|es are very sma|| |n amount
Const|tuent Iormu|a ercent by vo|ume
nlLrogen n
2
7808
Cxygen C
2
2093
Argon Ar 093
Carbon d|ox|de CC
2
0033
neon ne 00018
Pellum Pe 00003
Methane Cn
4
000017
krypLon kr 000011
N|trous ox|de N
2
C 000003
Pydrogen P
2
000003
Czone C
3
0000004
Compos|t|on of c|ean dry a|r |n troposphere
(exc|ud|ng very sma|| amount of water vapour and part|cu|ate matter)
1nL A1MCSnLkL CI LAk1n
Age of earth 46 b||||on years (approx|mate|y)
In|t|a| atmospher|c gas compos|t|on ne||um and compound of
hydrogen methane and ammon|a
Lar|y atmosphere |s thought to have escaped |nto space
Subsequent vo|can|c act|v|t|es CC
2
water vapour compounds of
N
2
and S re|eased to atmosphere over t|me
Iormat|on of mo|ecu|ar oxygen (C
2
)
hotod|ssoc|at|on of water vapour
hotosynthes|s by p|ant evo|v|ng under water
hotosynthes|s |ncreased resu|ted |n |ncreased format|on of C
2
and |t fo||owed w|th format|on of C
3
ALkS CI 1nL A1MCSnLkL
Conven|ent to th|nk the atmosphere made of hor|zonta| |ayers
Lach |ayer |s character|sed by the temperature prof||e
ayers
1roposphere decreas|ng temp w|th a|t|tude
Stratosphere |ncreas|ng temp w|th a|t|tude
Mesosphere decreas|ng temp w|th a|t|tude
1hermosphere |ncreas|ng temp w|th a|t|tude
1rans|t|on a|t|tudes separat|ng these |ayers
1ropopause 8etween 1roposphere and Stratosphere
Stratopause 8etween Stratosphere and Mesosphere
Mesopause 8etween Mesosphere and 1hermosphere
1hermosphere
Mesosphere
Stratosphere
1roposphere
Mesopause
Stratopause
1ropopause
120
100
80
60
40
20
-20 0 20 -80 -60 -40
0
-100
Temperature (
o
C)
A
I
t
i
t
u
d
e

(
k
m
)
ATMOSPHERE SHOWING FOUR MAJOR LAYERS
1kCCSnLkL
Cons|sts of 80 of mass of the atmosphere
V|rtua||y a|| water vapour c|ouds and prec|p|tat|on occurs |n th|s
|ayer
Usua||y very turbu|ent p|ace because of strong vert|ca| a|r
movement that |ead to rap|d and comp|ete m|x|ng
A|t|tude
M|d|at|tudes 10 to 12 km
o|es S to 6 km
Lquator 18 km
1emp prof||e
Decreases S to 7
o
C per km (wet or saturated ad|abat|c |apse rate)
S1kA1CSnLkL
Stab|e |ayer of very dry a|r
o||utants f|nd|ng way to stratosphere may rema|n there for
many years
When they dr|ft back to troposphere they are d||uted and
removed by prec|p|tat|on
Short wave|ength u|trav|o|et energy |s absorbed by C
3
present
|n th|s |ayer
causes heat|ng of a|r
resu|ts |n temperature |nvers|on
stratosphere becomes stab|e
1roposphere + Stratosphere accounts for 99 of mass of atmosphere
extend up to S0 km above earth
MLSCSnLkL
A|r m|xes |n th|s |ayer fa|r|y read||y
1nLkMCSnLkL
neat|ng of th|s |ayer |s due to absorpt|on of so|ar energy by atom|c
oxygen
ICNCSnLkL
A re|at|ve|y dense band of charged part|c|es w|th|n thermosphere
AR POLLUTON
Def|n|t|on
A|r po||ut|on |s def|ned as the presence of contam|nants |n a|r such as dust
fumes gases m|st odour smoke or vapour |n such quant|t|es and
character|st|cs for a part|cu|ar durat|on wh|ch may be |n[ur|ous to human p|ant
or an|ma| ||fe or to the property or wh|ch unreasonab|y |nterfere w|th
comfortab|e env|ronment of ||fe and property
A|r o||utant
9rlmary 9olluLanL Secondary 9olluLanL
9arLlculaLe maLLer
Cas
r|mary a|r po||utants
l SubsLances LhaL are emlLLed dlrecLly lnLo Lhe aLmosphere from ldenLlflable
sources as a resulL of combusLlon (auLomoblle exhausL and emlsslons from
Lhermal power planLs) evaporaLlon (volaLlle subsLances such as gasollne
palnLs and cleanlng flulds) grlndlng (vehlcle wheelroad surface lnLeracLlon)
and abraslon (ploughlng)
ll 9arLlculaLe maLLer CC nC
x
SC
x
organlc compounds and radloacLlve
compounds
Secondary a|r po||utants
l produced ln Lhe alr by Lhe lnLeracLlon among Lwo or more prlmary
polluLanLs or by lnLeracLlon wlLh normal aLmospherlc consLlLuenLs wlLh or
wlLhouL phoLoacLlvaLlon
ll SubsLances LhaL are creaLed by varlous physlcal processes and chemlcal
reacLlons LhaL Lake place ln Lhe aLmosphere
lll ozone (C
3
) lormaldehyde (PCPC) 9eroxyl AceLyl nlLraLe (9An) and
phoLochemlcal smog
kIMAk CU1AN1 GLNLkA1ICN 1nkCUGn CCM8US1ICN
Comp|ete combust|on of pure hydrocarbon fue|
CP
4
+ 2 C
2
CC
2
+ 2 P
2
C
Incomp|ete combust|on of fue| (keasons Lemp or oxygen avallablllLy noL enough
fuel noL glven enough Llme Lo burn compleLely)
kesu|t Some of Lhe carbon wlll be released as CC lnsLead of CC
2
Incomp|ete burn|ng of fue|
kesu|t Lmlsslon of parLlally combusLed hydrocarbons
CP
4
+ C
2
mosLly (CC
2
+ 2 P
2
C) + Lraces of (CC + PC)
kIMAk CU1AN1 GLNLkA1ICN 1nkCUGn CCM8US1ICN
CombusLlon Lakes place ln alr (n
2
78 C
2
21) not |n pure oxygen env|ronment
lf LemperaLure of combusLlon ls hlgh some n
2
ln alr reacLs wlLh C
2
ln alr and forms
varlous nlLrogen oxldes
Alr (n
2
+ C
2
) + PeaL nC
x
MosL of Lhe fuels are noL pure hydrocarbon Lhey conLaln oLher elemenLs such as n S
9b (ln peLrol) and oLher unburnable maLerlals called ash
Incomp|ete combust|on |n a|r (not |n pure C
2
) of fue|s that are not pure hydrocarbons
Iue| (n C S N b ash) + a|r (N
2
+ C
2
)
Lm|ss|ons (CC
2
n
2
C CC NC
x
SC
x
b part|cu|ates) + Ash
GLNLkA1ICN CI SLCCNDAk AIk CU1AN1
PC and oLher organlc compounds LhaL readlly vaporlze are called vo/oti/e Orqonic
compounds (vCCs) vCCs reacL wlLh nC
x
ln Lhe presence of sunllghL Lo produce
phoLochemlcal smog
vCCs + nC
x
+ SunllghL 9hoLochemlcal smog (C
3
+ eLc)
1he above reacLlons are greaLly slmpllfled however Lhey do lnLroduce Lhe 6 pr|nc|pa|
urban a|r po||utants
CC NC
x
SC
x
b C
3
and M (ash and unburnL hydrocarbons)
C2CNL (C
3
)
Ground |eve| C
3
ls harmful Lo our healLh
Stratospher|c C
3
proLecLs our healLh by shleldlng us from ulLravloleL radlaLlon from
Lhe sun
SCUkCL 1LS
Mob||e source
Modes of transportat|on
hlghway vehlcle rall alrcrafL boaL and shlp
Stat|onary source
Industry
power planLs meLal processlng planLs peLroleum
producLlon and reflnerles chemlcal planLs
(promlnenL one ls e/ectric power p/onts)
CAk8CN MCNCkIDL (CC)
CC |s a co|our|ess odour|ess taste|ess po|sonous gas
Source
roduced out of a combust|on that |nvo|ves one or more of the fo||ow|ng
|nsuff|c|ent oxygen
|ow combust|on temperature
fue| not g|ven enough t|me to burn
1he parameLers do noL meeL more ofLen ln moblle source Lhan ln sLaLlonary sources
kesu|t CC em|ss|on |s h|gh |n mob||e sources
77 of LoLal CC emlsslon comes from LransporL secLor
Lffect
No adverse |mpact on p|ants and mater|a|s at the |eve| that occur |n urban a|r
Powever CC ls an asphyxlanL (glves suffocaLlon due Lo lack of oxygen)
lnLerferes wlLh Lhe blood's ablllLy Lo carry C
2
from lungs Lo dlfferenL organs and Llssues
CC + Pb (haemoglobln) CCPb (Carboxyhaemoglobln)
CAk8CN MCNCkIDL (CC)
nb has a much greater aff|n|ty for CC than |t does for C
2
Consequence
Lven a sma|| amount of CC can ser|ous|y reduce the amount of C
2
conveyed
throughout the body
8ra|n funct|on affected and heart rate |ncreases |n an attempt to offset the C
2
def|c|t
1yp|ca| CC eve|s
|ace CC Concentrat|on (ppm)
near busy roadways 3 Lo 30
CongesLed hlghways 100
ClgareLLe smoke conLalns 400
lnslde bars and resLauranLs
where smoklng ls permlLLed
20 Lo 30
OXDE8 OF NTROGEN {NO
x
_
7 oxldes of nlLrogen are known nC nC
2
nC
3
n
2
C n
2
C
3
n
2
C
4
and n
2
C
3
lmporLanL alr polluLanLs nC and nC
2
(comblned referred Lo as ox|des of n|trogen NC
x
)
N
2
C Green house gas (GnG)
1herma| NC
x
lormed when n
2
and C
2
ln Lhe combusLlon alr reacL ln hlgh LemperaLure
(abouL 1000
o
k) and n
2
geLs oxldlsed
Iue| NC
x
8esulLs from oxldaLlon of nlLrogen compounds bound chemlcally ln fuel
molecules (coal has nlLrogen compounds abouL 3 by welghL)
@ronsport sector contributes o/most ho/f of the NO
x
emissions
LIILC1S
nC Pas no known adverse healLh effecLs aL concenLraLlons found ln Lhe aLmosphere
nC oxldlses Lo nC
2
and lL has many adverse healLh effecLs
Adverse effects of NC
2
lrrlLaLes lungs causes bronchlLls and pneumonla and resulLs ln lower reslsLance Lo
resplraLory funcLlons
8eacLs wlLh hydroxyl radlcals (CP) ln Lhe aLmosphere Lo form nlLrlc acld (PnC
3
)
PnC
3
corrodes meLal surface and conLrlbuLes Lo Lhe acld raln problem
OXDE8 OF 8ULPHUR {8O
x
_
SC
x
em|ss|on sources
90 fossll fuel combusLlon from sLaLlonary sources (83 of Lhls ls emlLLed from power planLs)
3 from hlghway vehlcles
S|gn|f|cant noncombust|on sources of su|phur em|ss|on
9eLroleum reflnlng
Copper smelLlng
CemenL manufacLurlng
Su|phur |n foss|| fue|s
Coa| 1 6 (AbouL 30 organlc sulphur ls chemlcally bound Lo coal oLher half ls physlcally
Lrapped ln Lhe noncarbon porLlon of coal and geLs removed by pulverlsaLlon or washlng of
coal before combusLlon)
etro|eum
1race amounL Lo abouL 3
A|| most a|| su|phur are removed dur|ng the process of ref|n|ng
Casollne has 1ppm sulphur
SC
2
em|ss|on
When S conLalnlng fuels are burned S ls released as SC
2
and SC
3

W|th mo|sture these form n

2
SC
4

SC
2
changes Lo SC
4
parLlcles ln a few days
r|nc|pa| remova| process |s wet depos|t|on (w|th prec|p|tat|on)
Adverse effects of SC
2
Plghly waLer soluble absorbed ln Lhe molsL parLs of Lhe upper resplraLory LracLs less
harmful
When enLralned ln aerosols can peneLraLe Lo deeper parLs of resplraLory sysLem and can
damage lungs Synergy of adverse lmpacLs of parLlcle and SC
2
wlll be more damaglng
(Lvery ma[or a|r po||ut|on ep|sode has resu|ted from the comb|nat|on of SC
2
and M)
AcldlflcaLlon damages planLs by affecLlng Lhelr ablllLy Lo exLracL nuLrlenLs from Lhe soll
because nuLrlenLs geL leached from Lhe soll
Sulphurous polluLanLs can dlscolour palnL corrode meLals and cause organlc flbers Lo
weaken
9rolonged exposure Lo sulphaLes causes damage Lo bulldlng marbles llmesLone and
morLar as carbonaLe ln Lhese maLerlals are replaced by sulphaLes
Calclum sulphaLe (gypsum CaSC
4
) ls waLer soluble and easlly washes away
lL leaves a plLLed eroded surface
Many h|stor|c bu||d|ng across wor|d are gett|ng rap|d|y damaged due to th|s exposure
OXDE8 OF 8ULPHUR {8O
x
_
HHHHHHHH

+HH

HHHH

= HHHHHHHH

+HHHH

+HH

HH
VCA1IL CkGANIC CCMCUNDS (VCC)
Atmospher|c VCC cons|sts of
DnburnL hydrocarbons emlLLed form Lallplpes and smoke sLacks when fossll fuels
are noL compleLely combusLed
Caseous hydrocarbons LhaL evaporaLe from solvenLs fuels and oLher organlcs
Noturo/ sources lsopropene emlLLed from declduous Lrees
(m|nor contr|but|on) 9lnene and llmonene emlLLed from conlfers
1ransport sector responslble for abouL 1/3 of anLhropogenlc vCC emlsslons
Industr|a| sector responslble for abouL 2/3 of anLhropogenlc vCC emlsslons
LNVIkCNMLN1A LIILC1
vCCs reacL wlLh nC
x
ln Lhe presence of sunllghL Lo produce phoLochemlcal smog
vCCs + nC
x
+ SunllghL 9hoLochemlcal smog (C
3
+ eLc)
nC1CCnLMICA SMCG AND C2CNL
NC
x
VCC and sun||ght when come together |n|t|ate a comp|ex set of react|ons
Secondary po||utants known as photochem|ca| ox|dants
C
3
|s the most abundant photochem|ca| ox|dant
produce
NC NC
2
C
3
photochem|ca| react|on sequence (wlLhouL added hydrocarbons)
n
2
+ C
2
2nC (lormaLlon of nC durlng combusLlon)
2nC + C
2
2nC
2
(nlLrlc oxlde geLLlng oxldlzed Lo nC
2
)
nC
2
+ nC + C (9hoto/ysis a phoLon wlLh rlghL amounL energy decomposes nC
2
and produces a free aLomlc oxygen represenLs a phoLon)
C + C
2
+ M C
3
+ M (lree aLomlc oxygen comblnes wlLh dlaLomlc oxygen (C
2
) Lo form
ozone (C
3
)
C
3
+ nC nC
2
+ C
2
(Czone converL nC back Lo nC
2
)
NC
2
tends to create C
3
whereas NC tends to destroy C
3
sun||ght
LIILC1 CI nC1CCnLMICA CkIDAN1S
kesp|ratory effects coughlng shorLness of breaLh headache chesL LlghLness and eye
nose and LhroaL lrrlLaLlon
SympLoms can be severe for asLhmaLlcs
ong term exposure can |ead to permanent scarr|ng of |ung t|ssues |oss of |ung funct|on
Damage to tree fo||age and growth rate
keduced y|e|d of ma[or agr|cu|tura| crops such as wheat soybeans and peanuts
PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS
Def|n|t|on
A part|c|e cons|sts of a s|ng|e cont|nuous un|t of so||ds or ||qu|d conta|n|ng many
mo|ecu|es he|d together by |ntermo|ecu|ar forces and pr|mar||y |arger than mo|ecu|ar
d|mens|ons ( 0001m)
A part|c|e may a|so be cons|dered to cons|st of two or more such un|t structure he|d
together by |nterpart|c|e adhes|ve forces such that |t behaves as a s|ng|e un|t |n
suspens|on or upon depos|t
Source
art|cu|ate matter resu|ts from the d|s|ntegrat|on of so||ds
1ransport construct|on and |ndustr|a| act|v|t|es vo|can|c erupt|on desert storms sea
sa|ts secondary aeroso|s and resuspens|on of crusta| matter are some of the ma[or
sources of a|r po||ut|on
1he f|ner the part|c|es the more |s |ts retent|on t|me |n atmosphere
Ak1ICUA1L MA11Lk
Def|n|t|on
ALmospherlc parLlculaLe maLLer (9M) conslsLs of any dlspersed maLLer solld or llquld ln
whlch Lhe lndlvldual aggregaLes range from molecular clusLers of 0003 m dlameLer Lo
coarse parLlcles up Lo abouL 100 m
Severa| terms for M
Aeroso| Any t|ny part|c|es ||qu|d or so||d d|spersed |n the atmosphere
Dust So||d part|c|e caused by gr|nd|ng or crush|ng operat|ons
Iume So||d part|c|e formed when vapour condenses s|ze 03 m to 3 m
M|st]Iog |qu|d part|c|es suspended |n a|r part|c|es or drop|ets formed by
condensat|on of vapour m|st part|c|es may coa|esce norma||y 10
m |n s|ze
Smoke]Soot art|c|es composed pr|mar||y of carbon that resu|t from |ncomp|ete
combust|on norma||y 1 m |n s|ze
Smog A comb|nat|on of smoke and fog
I|y ash Noncombust|b|e parts of coa| that comes out w|th f|ue gas s|ze 1
m to 100 m
PARTCULATE MATTER 8ZE
Lqu|va|ent aerodynam|c d|ameter
Ior a part|c|e hav|ng |rregu|ar shape the equ|va|ent aerodynam|c d|ameter of the
part|c|e |s the d|ameter of a spher|ca| part|c|e hav|ng the same sett||ng ve|oc|ty as that
of the |rregu|ar shaped part|c|e
A|rborne dust
Suspended part|cu|ate matter (SM or 1SM) 10 m (up to 100 m)
kesp|rab|e part|cu|ate matter (kSM kM or M
10
) 10 m
M
10
M
coarse
+ M
f|ne
M
2S10
+ M
2S
Ak1ICUA1L MA11Lk
Sett||ng ve|oc|ty of the spher|ca| part|c|e
When part|c|e reaches term|na| ve|oc|ty the grav|tat|ona| force pu|||ng |t down |s
ba|anced by the force due to buoyancy and fr|ct|ona| drag force
Ior part|c|es 30 m and dens|ty much greater than a|r s|mp||f|ed stokes can be app||ed
for drag force
CravlLaLlonal force urag force
m mass of parLlcle (g)
g gravlLaLlonal acceleraLlon (98 m/s
2
)
d parLlcle dlameLer (m)
p parLlcle denslLy (g/m
3
)
q vlscoslLy of alr (00172 g/ms)
v seLLllng veloclLy (m/s)
Y =

pY = qvu
v =
u

pY
%q

Drag force
Grav|tat|ona| force
d
SL11ING VLCCI1ILS CI Ak1ICUA1L MA11Lk
art|c|e s|ze Approx|mate sett||ng
ve|oc|ty (cm]s)
01 m 4 x 10
3
1 m 4 x 10
3
10 m 03
100 m 30
Numer|ca| Sett||ng ve|oc|ty of a spher|ca| part|c|e
llnd Lhe seLLllng veloclLy of a spherlcal dropleL of waLer wlLh dlameLer 2m and
esLlmaLe Lhe resldence Llme of such parLlcles lf Lhey are unlformly dlsLrlbuLed ln Lhe
lower 1000m of aLmosphere
So|ut|on
WlLh denslLy of waLer equal Lo 10
6
g/m
3
Dslng slmple box model Lo esLlmaLe Lhe resldence Llme of parLlcles unlformly dlsLrlbuLed
ln a box of aLmosphere wlLh helghL h (m)
8esldence Llme h/v 1000/(127 x 104 m/s) 79 x 10
6
s 91 days
v =
u

pY
%q
=
(

HHHH

{ (9.% HHHH

{
% . YHHHH

v = .

HHHH
AIR POLLUTION AND METEOROLOGY
Principal parameters that influence the dispersion of air pollutant:
Primary parameters
Wind direction and speed
Temperature
Atmospheric stability
Mixing height
Secondary parameters
Precipitation
Humidity
Solar radiation
These parameters vary as a function of Iatitude, season and topography
AIR POLLUTION AND METEOROLOGY
The ease with which poIIutants can disperse verticaIIy into the atmosphere is
IargeIy determined by the rate of change of air temperature with aItitude.
Lapse rate
The rate of change of air temperature with aItitude is caIIed Iapse rate
A parcel of air moving upward experiences less pressure, expands and cools
A parcel of air moving downward comes under more pressure, gets compressed
and temperature of the air parcel increases
Therefore we can imagine that as temperature, pressure and voIume of the
air parceI are changing, its surroundings are adding or subtracting energy
from the air parceI.
AIR POLLUTION AND METEOROLOGY
Adiabatic Iapse rate
However, had this energy transfer in the form of heat not taken place
between the air parcel and surrounding, the process would be adiabatic
and at that condition the rate of change of temperature of the air parcel with
altitude is known as adiabatic Iapse rate.
When the air is assumed to be dry, this is caIIed dry adiabatic Iapse
rate
Dry adiabatic Iapse rate, F
d
= - /%/ = 9.76
o
C/km (= 10
o
C/km)
Saturated (Wet) adiabatic Iapse rate
If the air has enough water vapour in it so that condensation takes pIace as
the air parceI is raised and cooIed, Iatent heat wiII be reIeased.
This added heat wiII not aIIow the parceI to cooI as rapidIy as the dry one.
The Iapse rate of such air containing water vapour is caIIed Saturated
adiabatic Iapse rate.
This Iapse rate is variabIe as amount of moisture that air can hoId before
beginning of condensation is a function of temperature.
A reasonabIe average vaIue for troposphere:
Saturated adiabatic Iapse rate, F
s
= - /%/ = 6
o
C/km
AIR POLLUTION AND METEOROLOGY
AIR POLLUTION AND METEOROLOGY
Ambient Iapse rate
A number of factors, such as wind speed, sunlight and the geographical
features cause the lapse rate in the real atmosphere to vary from the dry
adiabatic lapse rate.
This Iapse rate in the reaI atmosphere is caIIed ambient Iapse rate (F).
This is aIso caIIed environmentaI Iapse rate.
The difference between the ambient Iapse rate and adiabatic Iapse
rate determines the stabiIity of the atmosphere.
ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
The tendency of the atmosphere to enhance or resist verticaI motion is
termed as stabiIity.
Three stabiIity categories
StabIe atmosphere:
The thermal structure of the atmosphere inhibits mechanical turbulence
Discourages the dispersion and dilution of pollutants
UnstabIe atmosphere:
Mechanical turbulence is enhanced by thermal structure
Rapid vertical mixing of air takes place
Encourages pollutant dispersal
ncreases air quality
NeutraI atmosphere:
The thermal structure neither enhances nor resists mechanical
turbulence
Limited pollutant dispersion; dispersion is mainly due to diffusion
PrimariIy stabiIity depends on Lapse rate.
NEUTRAL ATMOSPHERE
Ambient Iapse rate = Dry adiabatic Iapse rate
Air parceI experiences no buoyant force
No upward or downward movement of air parceI
NeutraI atmosphere condition prevaiIs
Very IittIe poIIutant dispersion

Dry adiabatic lapse rate

Ambient lapse rate H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
Temperature (
o
C)
19 2 21 22
4

2
1
/%/ = -10
o
C/km
UNSTABLE ATMOSPHERE
Ambient Iapse rate > Dry adiabatic Iapse rate (the lapse rate is said to be superadiabatic)
Air parceI experiences buoyant force
Upward movement of air parceI
Air from different aItitude mix thoroughIy
Very effective condition for poIIution dispersion

Dry adiabatic lapse rate

Ambient lapse rate
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
Temperature (
o
C)
19 2 21 22
4

2
1
/%/ = -12.5
o
C/km
STABLE ATMOSPHERE
Ambient Iapse rate < Dry adiabatic Iapse rate (the Iapse rate is said to be subadiabatic)
Very IittIe verticaI mixing of poIIutants
PoIIutants disperse very sIowIy; resuIts in poIIutant buiId up

Dry adiabatic lapse rate

Ambient lapse rate
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
Temperature (
o
C)
19 2 21 22
4

2
1
/%/ = -0.5
o
C/km
NUMERICALS ON ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
Q.
iven the following temperature and elevation data, determine the stability of the
atmosphere.
Elevation (m) Temperature (
o
C)
2. 14.
24. 11.1
A.
T/ = (11.114.)/(24.2.)
o
C/m = .22/22.
= .1
o
C/m
= 1
o
C/km
This is same as the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
Therefore, atmospheric stability is neutraI.
INVERSION
Two special cases of subadiabatic lapse rate
IsothermaI Iapse rate Temperature inversion
When there is no change of temp. When temperature increases
with elevation with elevation
Atmosphere is stable Atmosphere is stable
Both cases discourage poIIutant dispersion

Dry adiabatic Iapse rate

Ambient Iapse rate
(Temperature inversion)
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
Temperature (
o
C)
19 2 21 22
4

2
1
Ambient Iapse rate (IsothermaI)
I
s
o
t
h
e
r
m
a
I
S
t
a
b
I
e
%= 9.8
o
C
Temperature,
o
C
%
E
I
e
v
a
t
i
o
n
,

k
m
0.5
1.0
1.5
RELATIONSHIP OF THE AMBIENT LAPSE RATES
WITH THE DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE
TEMPERATURE INVERSION
An extreme case of atmospheric stabiIity
Ambient temperature increases with aItitude, caIIed negative Iapse rate
ResuIts in a virtuaI Iid on the upward movement of the poIIutant
TYPES OF INVERSION
Radiation Inversion
Subsidence Inversion
FrontaI Inversion
RADIATION INVERSION
Surface of the earth cooIs after sunset by radiation energy towards space
On a cIear night, surface more rapidIy radiates energy to space and ground
cooIing occurs much more rapidIy
As the ground cooIs, the temp of the air in contact with the ground aIso drops
Therefore Iow IeveI air cIose to ground is coIder than the air above it, a case
of temperature inversion
Radiation inversion begin to form at about dusk
As the evening progresses, the inversion extends to higher and higher
eIevation
Radiation inversion is more prevaIent in winter season and in nights with
cIear sky
On a cIoudy night, earth's radiation gets absorbed by water vapour, which in
turn reradiates some of the heat energy back to the ground.
RADIATION INVERSION
Next day morning sunIight warms the ground and destroys the inversion
Often begin at about the earIy evening traffic buiId up and therefore traps
the poIIutant emitted from the traffic and increases the concentration of
poIIutants to which commuters are exposed
SUBSIDENCE INVERSION
Associated with high pressure weather system, known as AnticycIone
Air in the middIe of the high pressure zone descends, gets compressed
and temperature of air rises
Air on the edges are rising and getting cooIed
FRONTAL INVERSION
When a coId air mass passes under a warm air mass, the inversion is
caIIed frontaI inversion
FrontaI inversion has short Iife
It tend to be accompanied by precipitation which cIeanses the air
MIXING DEPTH/MIXING HEIGHT
That height above earth's surface to which reIated poIIutants wiII extend,
primariIy through the action of the atmospheric turbuIence
OR
The height above the earth's surface up to which poIIutants are diIuted and
dispersed in the avaiIabIe atmospheric condition; i.e. significant mixing of
the poIIutants takes pIace
Varies between 100m and 500m above the ground IeveI
Depends on ambient Iapse rate at a given pIace and time
UsuaIIy reIated to wind direction, wind speed and turbuIence
It depends on basic meteoroIogicaI parameters, surface turbuIent fIuxes
and physicaI parameters, and foIIows a diurnaI cycIe.
The mixing height cannot be observed directIy by standard measurements
MAXIMUM MIXING DEPTH (MMD)
MMD
MMD
MMD
DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE
AMBIENT LAPSE RATE
A
L
T
I
T
U
D
E
TEMPERATURE
HIGHER MMD
&nstable atmosphere
Summer season
Day time
LOWER MMD
Stable atmosphere
Winter season
Night time
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Wein's dispIacement ruIe: (gives the wavelength at which a blackbody
spectrum peaks as a function of its absolute temperature)
/max (m) = 2898/T(K)
SUN: A blackbody with temp. 8 K
Spectrum peaks at . m
EARTH: Average temp. about 288 K
Spectrum peaks at 1.1 m
Short waveIength radiation:
NearIy aII incoming soIar energy has waveIength < 3 m
Long waveIength or ThermaI radiation:
NearIy aII outgoing soIar energy has waveIength > 3 m
Incoming soIar radiation just outside
of the earth's atmosphere
Radiation from the earth's
Surface at 288 K
WaveIength (m)
2

1
/
max
ncoming extraterrestrial
solar radiation, 8 K
(short wavelengths)
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
W
/
m
2
)

/

m
1
2 4
Outgoing radiation from
Earth's surface, 288 K
(long wavelengths)

WaveIength (m)
/
max
1 2 4
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
W
/
m
2
)

/

m
2

1
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The infrared (IR) portion of the spectrum Iies between 0.7 m and 100 m.
Some of the incoming soIar radiation is IR
AII the outgoing thermaI radiation is IR
The Process
Radiation from Earth surface
Attempts to pass through atmosphere
Affected by gases and aerosols in the air
ResuIt:
Radiant energy pass through atmosphere unaffected
Radiant energy gets scattered by reflection
Radiant energy gets absorbed and do not escape the lower atmosphere
(when frequency of moIecuIar osciIIation of gases is
cIose to the frequency of the passing radiant energy)
Key phenomenon for greenhouse effect
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
The most important are
Water vapour (H
2
O), CO
2
, CH
4
, N
2
O, O
3,
O
2
(moIecuIar oxygen)
Water vapour: strongIy absorbs at < 8 m and >18 m
(the most important greenhouse gas)
CO2: strong absorption centered at 15 m and at 2.7 m and 4.3 m
O3: absorption band between 9.5 m and 10.6 m
O
2
and O
3
: absorbs aII incoming soIar radiation < 0.3 m (uItravioIet)
(cause of stratospheric ozone depIetion)
Atmospheric radiative window
WaveIength band between 7 m and 12 m aIIows outgoing thermaI radiation
Greenhouse gas:
RadiativeIy active gases that absorb waveIengths Ionger than 4 m
Absorption of Iong waveIength
energy by atmospheric gases
Surface radiation
H
2
O, CO
2
, CH
4
, N
2
O, O
3
Through atmospheric
radiative window
Reradiated IR from
Atmosphere to space
Reradiated IR from
Atmosphere to earth
Most of the Iong waveIength
energy radiated from the earth's
surface is absorbed by
greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Absorption of radiation by greenhouse gases heats the atmosphere
The greenhouse gases act as a thermal blanket around the globe
Raises the earth's surface temperature
Greenhouse effect is based on the concept of a conventionaI greenhouse with
GIass acting much Iike the aforementioned gases
GIass:
Easily transmits short wavelength solar energy into the greenhouse
Absorbs almost all of the longer wavelengths radiated by the greenhouse interior
GREENHOUSE EFFECT and TEMP OF EARTH