Calvin College Engineering Department

Introduction to Electric Power and Energy Systems

Power Engineering = The Power to Transform and Restore

From a Garden

To a City

Paulo F. Ribeiro, MBA, Ph.D., PE Interim 2008

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A Reflection on Technology

Despite its limitations and dangers, technology can alleviate in part the bind in which humankind naturally finds itself. Appropriate technology can increase lifes possibilities, decrease physical burdens and difficulties at work, and free people from routine activities while opening the door to all kinds of mental creative labor. Natural disasters can be averted, illness overcome, and, in a certain sense, with the aid of electronics and microprocessors, the deaf can hear, the blind can see, and the lame walk again. Technology development can provide a degree of social security, and increase available information so as to extend and deepen communications.
Adapted from Perspectives on Technology and Culture, by Egbert Schuurman

Calvin College - January 2008 A C.S. Lewis Quote Calendar - Meditations for Interim 2008

(Complied by P. F. Ribeiro)
Is Theology Poetry?

I believe in Christianity as I believe that the sun has risen, not only because I see it but because by it I see everything else. Sunday Monday Tuesday
1 "'There are no accidents. Our guide is Aslan.'"

Wednesday
2 All that is not eternal is eternally out of date.

Thursday
3 Die before you die. There is no chance after.

Friday
4 Where, except in the present can the eternal be met.

Saturday
5 "For in self-giving, if anywhere, we touch a rhythm not only of all creation but of all being."

Prayer is either a sheer illusion or a personal contact between embryonic, incomplete persons (ourselves) and the utterly concrete Person. Prayer in the sense of petition, asking for things, is a small part of it; confession and penitence are its threshold, adoration its sanctuary, the presence and vision and enjoyment of God its wine. The Worlds Last Night 6 Do not waste 7 "Badness is only your time bothering spoiled goodness." whether you love you neighbor; act as if you did.
Mere Christianity Mere Christianity

The Four Loves The Silver Chair

Till We Have Faces Christian Reflections

The Problem of Pain

8 Joy is the serious Business of heaven.

9 "No good work is done anywhere without aid from the Father of Lights."

10 "Christ died for men precisely because men are not worth dying for; to make them worth it."

11 "Every sin is the distortion of an energy breathed into us..."

12 "Until you have given up your self to Him you will not have a real self..."

Reflections on the Psalms Letters to Malcolm The World's Last Night Letters to Malcolm

Mere Christianity

13 "The surest way of spoiling a pleasure [is] to start examining your satisfaction."

14 "Human intellect is incurably abstract."

15 "Poetry too is a little incarnation, giving body to what had been before invisible and inaudible."
Reflections on the Psalms

16 "The most valuable thing the Psalms do for me is to express the same delight in God which made David dance."
Reflections on the Psalms

17 "Though we cannot experience our life as an endless present, we are eternal in God's eyes; that is, in our deepest reality."
Letters to Malcolm

18 'Nothing, not even what is lowest and most bestial, will not be raised again if it submits to death.'"
The Great Divorce

19 "History is a story written by the finger of God."

Christian Reflections

Myth Became Fact Surprised by Joy

20 "Every story of conversion is the story of a blessed defeat."

21 "Without the aid of trained emotions the intellect is powerless against the animal organism."

22 "No doubt those who really founded modern science were usually those whose love of truth exceeded their love of power."
The Abolition of Man

23 "The very nature of Joy makes nonsense of our common distinction between having and wanting."

24 "You would not have called to me unless I had been calling to you,'" said the Lion."

25 "Perfect humility dispenses with modesty."

26 Mere change is not

growth. Growth is the synthesis of change and continuity, and where there is no continuity there is no growth.
Selected Literary Essays

Foreword to Joy Davidman's Smoke on the Mountain

The Silver Chair Surprised by Joy

The Abolition of Man

The Weight of Glory

27 "Where, except in uncreated light, can the darkness be drowned?"

28 "Mercy, detached from Justice, grows unmerciful."

29 "The road to the promised land runs past Sinai."

30 Authority exercised with humility, and obedience accepted with delight are the very lines along which our spirits live."
Transposition and Other ...

31 I'm going to live as like a Narnian as I can even if there isn't any Narnia.

"Aslan," said Lucy, "you're bigger."

"That is because you are older, little one," answered he. "Not because you are?" "I am not. But every year you grow, you will find me bigger."
Prince Caspian

The Humanitarian Theory of Punishment Letters to Malcolm

The Silver Chair

The Problem of Pain

Continue seeking Him with seriousness. Unless He wanted you, you would not be wanting Him. Letters of C.S. Lewis
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Example 1

Example 2

Example 3
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MTWTHF 02:00PM 054 NH 08/IN ENGR W8

Syllabus - Schedule - 2:00PM 5:00PM - - - Room SB 128

Professor: Paulo F. Ribeiro pfribeiro@ieee.org Skype: aslan52
Sunday 30 Monday 31 Tuesday 1 Wednesday 2

SB134 x 6407

Thursday 3 Introduction Structure of Power Systems

Friday 4 Introduction Structure of Power Systems

Visit to Consumers Energy (Prof. Visit 9AM) Visit to Newberry Place 3:30PM

Saturday 5

7 Generators Transformers Trans. Lines Lines, etc. 14 Projects

8 Grid Operation Load Flow Problem

Visit to Plainwell, Hydro Plant

9 Grid Operation SimPower PowerWorld

10 Grid Operations PowerWorld Examples

11 Grid Operations

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15 Projects
(E-Learning Skype - E-Mail)

16 Projects
(E-Learning Skype - E-Mail)

17 Projects
(E-Learning Skype - E-Mail)

18 Projects
(E-Learning Skype - E-Mail)

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20

21 Wrap-Up

22 Paper Presentations 29

23 Paper Presentations 30

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ENGR W84 A Intro. to Power/Energ y Systems

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02:00PM 05:00PM

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Course Instructions
Text
Class Notes; Internet / Web Resources References: The Electric Power Engineering Handbook. CRC / IEEE Press, 2000. Power System Analysis, Hadi Saadat, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2002. Power System Analysis, 2nd Edition, Arthur R. Bergen and Vijay Vittal, Prentice-Hall, 1999. Power Systems Analysis John J. Grainger and William D. Stevenson McGraw-Hill, 1994. Elements of Power Systems Analysis, 4th Edition, William D. Stevenson, McGraw-Hill, 1982. Electrical Energy Systems Theory, Olle Elgerd, McGraw-Hill, 1971; Power Systems Analysis, Charles Gross, John Wiley & Sons, 1979 Power System Analysis & Design, J.D. Glover and M. Sarma, 2nd Edition, PWS Publishers, 1994

Web Resources (?????????????????????????????????????????????) Some Suggested Topics For Final Paper

Distributed Generation, Energy Efficiency, Renewable Energy Sources Exploring Grid Operations With PowerWorld Exploring Power Systems and Power Electronics Transients With PSCAD/EMTDC Designing A Distribution System With EasyPower Harmonic Propagation Analysis (Using PSpice and/or MathCAD) Paper 8-10 Pages (IEEE Paper Format) Power Quality Survey/Diagnostic at Calvin College (Using Fluke 43) Presentation 20 minutes Perspectives on Deregulation of the Power Utility Industry Teams of two students Environmental Impact of Power Systems Using the Internet for Power Systems Monitoring

Grades
(based on homework assignments, class participation, final paper/presentation, class log/notes)
Pass Pass Honor Fail (S) (H) For Outstanding Work (U)(*)
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(*) incomplete/insufficient assignments and/or missed two class periods

Course Instructions

My objective is to provide you with a learning environment in which you will learn the fundamentals of power systems. My approach is to encourage the student to learn how to learn. To take ownership of the learning process: Initiative, involvement, interactive participation are the keys to an effective learning experience. Please keep me informed if you do not feel that I have been successful in this goal. Do not wait until evaluation time to express your frustrations. I want to listen to your concerns or difficulties with the material, and am always available to help you outside the classroom.
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Objectives/Introductory Words:
To introduce a broad range of theory and methods related to AC power system analysis and design. To develop familiarity with power system engineering components, equipment and analytical tools To understand and study of the largest machine ever built-the integrated power grid. To understand the use of transmission grids as a means of transport/delivery of energy. To use tools for the analysis of power systems (PowerWorld, EasyPower, PSCAD/EMTP). To investigate flow of power on a power grid. To understand voltage regulation, real and reactive power, three phase power, power quality, efficiency, practical stability limits, etc., etc. To become familiar with management and environmental issues associated with transmission grids / power systems.
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Introduction to Power Systems: Syllabus

Concepts and Applications: Introduction (Structure of Power Systems) Basic Principles (AC Power) Generation Transmission Lines Transformers Power Flow Stability Transient and Harmonic Studies Computer Programs MathCAD, PSpice, MATLAB / Simulink (PowerSym), PowerWord, EasyPower, EMTDC/PSCAD Advanced Topics: Distributed Generation, Renewable Power, Efficiency
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Projects

1 Small Hydro Power Plant City of Plainwell, Michigan Feasibility Study for Recovery of Plant

2 Belknap Lookout Community Feasibility Study of Developing Wind Power Generation Project
3 Consumers Energy Control Center in Ada Work on possible projects at the Control Center.

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Projects

Erik Wilson, Manager City of Plainwell

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Projects

Steve Faber Newberry Place

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Projects

Mark Luehmann, Consumers Energy

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An Overview of Power and Energy Systems

Power System Analysis, Computing and Economics Computing applications Distribution system analysis Economics, market organization, cost structures, pricing, and risk management Intelligent system applications Reliability, uncertainty, and probability and stochastic system applications Power System Dynamic Performance Power system dynamic modeling: components and systems Power system stability: phenomena, analysis, and techniques Power system stability controls: design and applications Power system dynamic measurements Power system interaction with turbine generators Dynamic security assessment: techniques and applications, risk-based methods

Power System Operations

Power system dynamic modeling: components and systems Power system stability: phenomena, analysis, and techniques Energy control centers Distribution operation System control Operating economics and pricing
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An Overview of Power and Energy Systems

Power System Planning & Implementation Generation system resource planning Transmission system planning Distribution system planning Integrated resource planning and distributed resource planning Load forecasting Customer products and services planning and implementation Industry restructuring planning and policy issues Insulated Conductors

Construction and design of cables (materials and manufacturing) Construction, design and testing of cable accessories (cable terminations and joints) Construction, operation, and testing of cable system Assembly, operation, and testing of station, control (including fiberoptic), and utilization cables (no transmission and distribution cables) Power Engineering Education New instruction methods (software/ internet / laboratory / combined with research) Virtual classrooms/laboratory Distance education Life-long learning
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An Overview of Power and Energy Systems

Electric Machinery DC Machines Permanent magnet machinery systems Switched and variable reluctance machines Integral horsepower induction machinery Wound rotor induction machinery Single phase induction motors Electronic drives for electric machinery Induction generators for grid and isolated applications Synchronous generators Motor/generator sets for pumped storage Synchronous motors materials to electric machinery Electrical machinery theory Numerical analysis of electric machinery Power processing equipment Insulation for electric machinery Application of magnetic materials to electric machinery Application of superconducting Power System Communications Communication systems Communication media Communication protocols Communication standardization Home automation and communication

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An Overview of Power and Energy Systems

Power System Instrumentation and Measurements Digital technology for measurements Electricity metering High voltage testing Measurement techniques for impedance elements Power System Relaying Digital protection systems Adaptive protections Power system protection Protection of electrical equipment Relaying communications Relaying for consumer interface Substations Substation automation Intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) Substation design High voltage power electronics stations Gas insulated substations (GIS)
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An Overview of Power and Energy Systems

Surge Proctective Devices Design/testing of high voltage surge protective devices (>1000V) Application of high voltage surge protective devices (>1000V) Design/testing of low voltage surge protective devices (<1000V) Application of low voltage surge protective devices (<1000V) Nuclear Power Engineering Nuclear power plant controls Modeling, simulations and control monitoring and instrumentation Transformer Power and instrument transformers Insulating fluids Dielectric testing Audible noise and vibration Transformer modeling techniques

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An Overview of Power and Energy Systems

Transmission and Distribution AC transmission and distribution facilities Lightning phenomena and insulator performance Overhead line conductors: thermal and mechanical aspects Corona, electric, and magnetic fields Towers, poles, and hardware Capacitors, shunt and series capacitor banks, and harmonic filter banks HVDC transmission and distribution, FACTS and power electronic applications to ac transmission Harmonics and power quality Transients, switching surges, and electromagnetic noise Maintenance and operation of overhead lines Work procedures, safety, tools, and equipment Superconductivity analysis and devices Distributed resources Energy Development and Power Generation Excitation systems Power system stabilizers Advanced energy technologies, Renewable energy technologies Station design, operations, and control Modeling, simulation and control of power plants Monitoring and instrumentation of power plants Control of distributed generation Hydroelectric power plants, Power plant scheduling, Engineering economic issues International practices in energy development

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An Overview of Power and Energy Systems Make sure you have your students run LOTS of load flows... PowerWorld has an excellent demo package for schools. You can be sure to tell them that in the "real world" though, we are running 30,000+ bus load flows! However, they will NOT have to know anything about wavelets! :-) We have a lot of positions open and will have more in the near future. Regards, W.G, Ph.D., P.E. Supervisor, Operations Engineering Southwest Power Pool
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Objectives/Introductory Words:
The Big Picture

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Objectives/Introductory Words: Itaipu - A Great Story

The control center of the 18 generators - Left half of it (in

Brazil) controls the 60 Hz units, right half (in Paraguay) controls the 50 Hz units
A 18 kV to 525 kV transformer for 825 MVA Inside the ITAIPU Powerhouse To increase the voltage of the generators, transformers Dimensions: length: 986 m, maximum height: 112 m and width: 99m. The with a capacity of 825 MVA and 768 MV, for 50 and 60 red line on the floor indicates the border of Brazil and Paraguay Hz respectively, were specified Electricity (AC) leaving ITAPU to Sao Paulo - 6,300 MW of electrical power generated by the 60 Hz units is transported by an 891 km AC transmission system, formed by three lines of 750 kV. Source: http://www.solar.coppe.ufrj.br/itaipu_conv.html 23

Objectives/Introductory Words:
Power System Components

Electrical Components
Light bulb Switch Watthourmeter Distribution system Circuit breakers Transformers Tap changers Protective relaying Transmission system Generator step-up transformers Socket Wire to circuit box Connection to distribution system Substation Disconnects Subtransmission system Current transformers Reactors Suspension insulators Generators Wire to switch Circuit breaker Distribution transformer Capacitors Buses Capacitor banks Potential transformers Metal-oxide varistors Lightning arrestors

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Objectives/Introductory Words:
Non-Electrical Components
Glass for bulbs Switches Copper for wire Transmission towers Controls for protec. relaying schem. Foundations for substation equipment Oil for transformers and circuit breakers Process control for component manufacturing control Turbines for turning generator Cars Manufacture of bulbs Circuit box Aluminum for wire Maintenance Sockets Steel for circuit box Poles for overhead lines Plastics for capacitor insulation

Communications for data and protection Fiber optics for communications Excavation equipment and crews Gas for insulated substations Computers for process control Coal for making steam to turn turbine Bridges Ceramics and polymers for suspension insulators Springs for circuit breakers Computers for generation and dispatch Trains for hauling coal People

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Objectives/Introductory Words:
Basics Facts, Issues and Questions

Electricity discovery and development The value of electricity as a commodity Voltage and current, AC vs DC, single phase vs three phase What is the difference between power and energy? Reactive power, power factor and power factor correction How is electricity generated? Costs and characteristics of different types of generation traditional and emerging (fossil, nuclear, hydro, wind, solar, fuel cell, microturbine, etc.) System impacts of distributed generation How can electricity be stored? Generation Transmission Distribution Why are different voltage levels use? Why do we have overhead lines instead of all underground? Why do we interconnect?

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Objectives/Introductory Words:
Power system operation and control
Typical load demand cycles: daily, seasonal; Load forecasting How is power transmitted from one place to another and what are the costs? Differences between short, medium and long lines Why is it important to maintain frequency, voltages, synchronism, etc.? Active and reactive power losses, voltage drop, reactive power transfer How is frequency maintained?

Technical issues
Power system limits, stability Power system reliability, security, contingencies, reserve margins Lightning and Over-voltage Protection Harmonics and distortion and their effects Voltage sags and short-term interruptions: causes and effects Power system transients (switching, fault initiation and clearing, transient recovery voltage)

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Objectives/Introductory Words:
Regulatory and policy issues

History of regulation in the US and abroad

Federal and National organizations Conservation: what works and are there new ideas? The role of regulators in the US

Electricity restructuring
The role of the US Federal vs. State governments What happened in California?

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Objectives/Introductory Words:
Historical Context
Static electricity discovered about 600 BC by Thales. Electromagnetism studied systematically by William Gilbert, 1600 First battery, Allessandro Volta, 1800 Relationship between current and magnetism, Andre Ampere, 1825 Ohms law, George Ohm, 1827 Faradays law, Michael Faraday, 1831 Maxwells Equations, James Clerk Maxwell, 1864 First practical generator and motor, Zenobe Thoephile Gramme, 1873 Incandescent Lamp, Thomas Edison, 1879 First power station Pearl Street, Manhattan, Thomas Edison, 1882

First Hydroelectric plant, Appleton Wisconsin, 1882

DC motor produced, Frank J. Sprague, 1884 Transformer demonstrated, William Stanley, 1886 Polyphase AC system, induction and synchronous motors, Nicola Tesla, 1888 First single-phase Transmission line in US, Oregon, 1889 - By 1900, over 3000 Stations
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Objectives/Introductory Words:
Recent Developments
High-speed relay systems
High-speed, EHV circuit breakers Surge Arresters (MOVs) Communications applications in power systems Energy control centers with SCADA and AGC Development of power electronics devices Adjustable speed drives / motors Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
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Objectives/Introductory Words:
Current Issues
Two extensive outages in 1996 July 2, 1996 Combined issues of Power system stability Protective Relaying System Planning Two million customers affected in 14 states, Canada and Mexico Initiating event related to power line touching a tree August 10, 1996 4 million customers affected in 9 states Initiating event: over heated transmission lines sag to trees

Utility Deregulation The intention is that removing state regulation from utility operation will reduce prices. A number of states already have legislation in place requiring deregulation, California is already phasing it in.

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12 - 34,5 kV Itaip Per Generator 750 MVA, 18 kV => 24.000 A

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Transformation

Transformer to 500 kV 890 A

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7,2 kV

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... Transmission

7,2 kV

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Substations

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LT Nova Ponte So Gotardo Bom Despacho 500 kV

LT Nova Ponte Estreito 500 kV LT Arauai 2 Irap 230 kV

LT Emborcao Nova Ponte 500 kV

LT Itumbiara Nova Ponte 500 kV

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Jurupari-Macap 230kV Tucuru-Manaus 500 kV Norte-Nordeste 500 kV

Acre/RondniaSE/CO 230 kV

Norte-Sul III 500 kV Reforos nas Regies SE/CO 500 kV

Sul-Sudeste 525 kV

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Transformers

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Objectives/Introductory Words:
Analytical Background Mechanical Energy Rotational Energy Electronics Electrical Energy Plus

Circuit Analysis

Signal Processing
Power Communications Electrical Power

Controls
Economics
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Why do we use Alternating Current (AC) for Electric Power?

Construction of Generators:Key component is the 3 phase generator Simple in raising and lowering voltages: Generators limited to about 25kV Transmission at 345,500 and 765kV (low losses) Subtransmission at 115, 69, 22kV Distribution at 12, 8, 4kV Key component: power transformer

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Power Generation

Itaipu - One 715 MW electrical generator

The diameter of the rotor is almost 16 m, the rotating mass is 2 650 t

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Voltage from generator to Customer

Typical voltages for different parts of the American power system: System Type From Residential Commercial Industrial Distribution 110 V 480 V 480 V 2300 V To 220 V (split single Phase) (three Phase) 4160 V. 32000 V 25 kV 765 kV 36 kV 130 kV

Subtransmission Transmission 115 kV Generation 13.2 kV

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Power Transformers

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Substations: where transmission lines interconnect

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Where does AC come from?

AC voltages and currents are usually produced by rotating generators in a power system and are represented by sine waves AC voltages and currents can also be produced by an electronic oscillator.

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A one phase AC generator

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Phase Angle

For AC circuits we must be concerned with the phase angle between voltage and current. Current may be in phase with voltage in which case the phase angle is zero Current may lead or lag voltage

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AC Power and Phasors

A phasor is a representation of a sinusoidal voltage or current as a vector rotating about the origin of the complex plane.

Example of Voltage and current calculations without phasors:

For a simple RL circuit with the above excitation voltage, find the current: This becomes a very difficult problem to solve, with the solution:

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AC Power and Phasors

Eulers Equation

voltages using rotating vectors (called phasors)

Representation of voltages and currents as complex numbers:

We then shorten the notation, assuming that all phasors that will be used in a system are at the same frequency, the (ejwt) term is implicit in all references to the value. Another assumption that is made is that the magnitude of any voltage or current as a function of time is the real part of its complex representation. Hence, may be represented in any of the following ways:

being called the exponential, polar, and rectangular forms respectively, where is the root mean square (rms) of the voltage wave form.

Definition of RMS

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AC Power and Phasors

Phasor representation of Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance

Advantages of Phasors
Less Cumbersome (short hand notation) Simpler Calculations (complex arithmetic, calculators can do), generally less need for integration and differentiation Additional insights may be obtained about relations between currents, voltages, and power Limitations Applies only to sinusoidal steady-state systems Power Calculated using phasors is only the time average
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Voltage and Current are the same (phase angle is zero)

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Current leads voltage by a phase angle of 45 deg

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Current lags voltage by a phase angle of 45 deg

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Instantaneous Power in an AC Circuit Multiply Voltage at time t by the current at time t. Note that power may flow in both directions.

HW 1 - Verify behavior of AC instantaneous power (using MathCAD, Mathematica, PSpice). Assume sinusoidal (different phase-shifts) and nonsinusoidal voltages / currents. Use a half-wave rectification load to generate a non-sinusoidal load. Interpret the results.
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Instantaneous Power in an AC Circuit

Phase angle zero

Current leading Voltage by 45 degrees

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Instantaneous Power in an AC Circuit Current leading Voltage by 90 deg

Current lagging Voltage by 90 deg

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Average Real Power

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Complex Power Real and Reactive

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Real and Reactive Power

Instantaneous power may flow in both directions Instantaneous power may be broken up into two components: Real Power only flows in one direction, its average value is zero or positive Reactive Power always oscillates in one direction and then reverses an equal amount. Its average value is always zero.

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Real and Reactive Power in an AC Circuit Phase Angle zero Current leading Voltage by 45 degrees

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Real and Reactive Power in an AC Circuit

Current leading Voltage by 90 deg

Current lagging Voltage by 90 deg

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What is RMS voltage and current?

If we use DC voltage and current then the power delivered to a load is: If we are given an AC voltage and current that are in phase then: Where

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Why must we use RMS voltages and currents?

Use RMS so that the product of voltage and current gives the correct power value, or the effective value of energy delivered per second to the load. If the current is not in phase with the voltage then: The reactive power is

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What is MVA, MW and MVARS

MW for Mega Watts (millions of watts) The product of RMS voltage and RMS current is the MVA (mega volt amperes) being delivered by a circuit.

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What is a 3 Phase AC system?

Three phase is generated by a generator with three sets of independent windings which are physically spaced 120 degrees around the stator. Voltages are labeled phase a, phase b, and phase c and are the same magnitude but differ in phase angle by 120 degrees.

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3 Phase Generator

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3 Phase Voltages

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Representing Three Phase voltages using Phasors

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Why use 3 phases?

Smooth torque on generator shaft Delivery of constant power to a 3 phase load 3 Wires and not 6

What about unbalanced conditions?

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Single Phase Circuit

Current = I

Voltage= V 0 deg

Requires 2 wires to deliver power

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3 phase circuit

Phase a Voltage a= V 0 deg

Neutral
Voltage c= V +120 deg Voltage b= V -120 deg Phase b

3 Phase Load

Phase c

If the three phase load is balanced the neutral carries no current and can be eliminated.
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3 phase circuit without a neutral wire

Phase a Voltage a= V 0 deg 3 Phase Load

Voltage c= V +120 deg

Voltage b= V -120 deg Phase b

Phase c

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3 Phase Quantities

Ia

Ia

Va Iab Vab

Va Vc Vb

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Voltage Drop and Reactive Power Compensation

V2 / 2 P&Q I ZLine = 1 +j7 ZLoad = 10 +j30

V1 = 13.2*10^3 + j0

C=?

HW 2 - Calculate the voltage at the receiving end of the line. If the voltage is too low, compute the size of the capacitor which will recover the voltage to the same value of the sending end. Use MathCAD/Mathematica to calculate the value of C and then PSpice to verify behavior.

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AC Power - Class Exercise

Calculate the real and reactive power absorbed by the two configurations below (as a function of V, R and L).

R
V 0 deg

XL

V 0 deg

XL

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AC Transmission - Power Flow - HW 3

Bus 1 Bus 2

I
V1 1 deg

Z = R +jX V2 2 deg = 1 - 2

S12 = P12 + jQ12

Demonstrate that

What happens when R<<X ?

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Network Equations
KCL and KVL in phasor domain Formulation of mesh equations Formulation of nodal equations Conversion of system of equations to matrices Matrix operations Inverse Transpose Conjugate Solution of matrix equations

Example Discussion (Admittance and Impedance Matrix)

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AC Power Transmission lines usually consist of multiples of three wires

Short, Medium, Long Lines What is the difference?

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Transmission lines
Short
Medium

Long

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Double Circuit Lines

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Transmission Line Design Considerations

Conductors Conductor types ACSR AAC AAAC ACAR Configurations bundles Shield Wires Ground Wires Lightning Protection Electrical factors Resistance and thermal loading Dielectric integrity and clearance

Inductance
Capacitance Mechanical Factors Structural Integrity Vibration Thermal Environmental Factors Visual Impact EM exposure Right of Way Danger to Wildlife
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Insulators
Porcelain Polymer Support Structures Wood Lattice Tubular Steel Concrete Fiberglass

Transmission Line Equations

Transmission Line Differential Equations

All Aluminium Conductors (AAC) Aluminium Conductors Steel Re-inforce (ACSR) All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC)

Derived from differential equations

Two Port Network Representation

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 Generators Power Transformers The Per Unit System

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Generation /Generators

http://hydropower.inel.gov/state/stateres.htm
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Generation /Generators

HW 4 - Analyze the actual composition of US power sources (compare with other countries) and propose a more sustainable / realistic composition. Use the internet for your research - substantiate your considerations.
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Why use very high voltages?

In this example the load is connected through a transmission line with resistance R. The motor is designed to operate at the same voltage as the generator terminal voltage. Losses are large and motor voltage is low. Discuss DC vs. AC and importance of Reactive Power on AC systems for voltage regulation.
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Why use very high voltages?

Transformer increases voltage to 10 times the generator terminal voltage. Current in transmission line is 1/10 I, losses are 1/100, and motor voltage is V-IR/100
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High Voltage Transmission

Reduces losses Transmission conductor can have a smaller cross section Provides better voltage regulation at the load bus

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Power Transformers

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Transformer Basics

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Power IN = Power OUT

This neglects the internal losses in the transformer

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Real Transformers

Test to Determine Parameters

Open Circuit Test:

Energize Low voltage winding at rated voltage, leaving other winding open
Measure Current (Ioc) and Power (Poc) into energized winding. Calculate Re+h and Xm Short Circuit Test:

Energize Low current (high voltage) winding at rated current with a solid short circuit applied across the other winding
Measure Voltage and Power at terminals of energized winding Calculate other parameters
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Real Transformers
Transformer Types Power Transformers Current Transformers Voltage Transformers Series Transformers Transformer Purchasing Issues

Efficiency
Audible Noise Installation Costs Manufacturing Facilities Performance Record

Questions? Discussions...
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Tap Changing Transformers

Changing taps changes the turns ratio

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Auto Transformer used for Tap Changing Under Load or TCUL Transformer

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TCUL Transformer

Assume primary side voltage begins to go down with heavy load TCUL transformer changes taps to keep secondary voltage within limits
Raise secondary voltage during heavy load Reduce secondary voltage during light load

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Three-Phase Transformers

Transformer Connections Each leg is a single phase transformer Y-Y connections (no phase shift) D-D connections (no phase shift) Y-D connections (-30 degrees phase shift) D-Y connections (+30 degrees phase shift)

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The Per Unit System

Allows engineers to analyze a single phase network where:

All P and Q quantities are three phase Voltage magnitudes are represented as a fractional part of their standard or base value All phase angles are represented in the same units as normally used

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Advantages
1. Per-unit representation results in a more meaningful and correlated data. It gives relative magnitude information. 2. There will be less chance of missing up between single - and three-phase powers or between line and phase voltages. 3. The p.u. system is very useful in simulating machine systems on analog, digital, and hybrid computers for steady-state and dynamic analysis. 4. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a piece of apparatus in p.u. (or per cent) on the base of the name plate rating of power ( ) and voltage ( ). Hence, it can be used directly if the bases chosen are the same as the name plate rating. 5. The p.u. value of the various apparatus lie in a narrow range, though the actual values vary widely. 6. The p.u. equivalent impedance (Zsc) of any transformer is the same referred to either primary or secondary side. For complicated systems involving many transformers or different turns ratio, this advantage is a significant one in that a possible cause of serious mistakes is removed. 7. Though the type of transformer in 3-phase system, determine the ratio of voltage bases, the p.u. impedance is the same irrespective of the type of 3-phase transformer. (Y D , D Y, D D , or Y Y) 8. Per-unit method allows the same basic arithmetic operation resulting in per-phase end values, without having to worry about the factor '100' which occurs in per cent system.
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Conversion Procedure
-Specify the MVA base. Typically this will be related to the rating of a generator, transformer, or transmission line. Just choose the one that will result in the least amount of computation. This base will remain constant throughout the system. -At any location in the circuit, specify a voltage base. This will typically be the nominal voltage for that particular location. -Determine the voltage base for all other areas in the circuit by adjusting by the turns ratio every time a transformer is encountered. -Having specified the voltage and MVA base throughout the system, current and impedance bases may be determined as:

-For each value, the per unit quantity is the actual value divided by the base value.

-For 3phase circuits, the following relationships must also be included:

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Set Up the Per Unit System

Each region of the power system is uniquely defined by a standard voltage determined by the transformer windings, this sets base voltage The entire system is given a base power to which everything in the power flow is referred

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Per Unit Conversions

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Sample Power System

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Power System Divided into base voltage regions

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Numerical Example Let. V = 118 00 volts

Z = 5 300 ohms
Then I = 23.6 -300 amperes & S = V I* = (118 00)(23.6 +300) va = 2,784.8 300 va For this example, it is appropriate to choose: SlB = 3,000 va VlB = 120-volts Then IlB = = 25 amperes & ZlB = = 4.8 ohms
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138

A three phase system consists of a generator, two transformers, two transmission lines, and two loads, as follows:
G1 is a 300 MVA generator rated at 25 kV, with an impedance of .05 p.u. (Assume that generator is operating at rated terminal voltage) T1 is a bank of three single phase 25 kV/199.2 kV transformers, each rated at 100 MVA, connected D-Y with a leakage reactance of 2.5%

T2
is a three phase 200 MVA transformer rated 345 kV/13.8 kV, with X=j.08. T3 is a three phase 1 MVA transformer rated 345 kV/4160, with X=j.02. L1 is a transmission line having an impedance of j75 W L2 is a distribution line having an impedance of j5 W

Z1
is an industrial facility with an effective impedance of 1 ohm at .85 power factor lagging Z2 is a substation load with an effective impedance of 17.5 ohm at .7 power factor leading

Using the MVA and voltage bases of the generator, Draw the per unit equivalent circuit, neglecting shunt elements in transformers Calculate the total current and power delivered by the generator (give answers in per unit and actual values). Calculate the magnitude of the terminal voltage of load Z1 (per unit and actual).
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Typical Per Unit Quantities

Voltages: 0.95 to 1.05 pu volts System Base 100MVA Real Power: 100 MW = 1.0 pu, 1000MW=10pu Transmission Line: All quantities in per unit

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Transmission Line Model

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The Power Flow

Used to design the power system Used to upgrade the power system Used to study the power system in real time for secure operation By far the most useful calculation used by power system engineers

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The Power Flow

The Power Flow Problem

Compute voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus

Calculate real and reactive power flow through all equipment Input Data Transmission line data

Transformer Data
Bus Data

Bus Type Known Parameters Unknown Parameters

Swing Bus V=1<0o

Load Bus P+jQ

P, Q
V, delta V, P Q, delta

Gen Bus (Voltage Control)

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Power Flow Equations

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Power Flow Bus Operation

Load Bus: uses both P and Q equation Solves for V and Generation Bus: Uses only the P equation and assumes V to be fixed (regulated voltage) Reference or swing bus, assumes V and are fixed (no P or Q equation possible.

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Power Flow

Figure from Power World Simulator

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Power Flow Standard Printout

BUS 1 Bus 1 GENERATOR 1 LOAD 1 TO 2 Bus 2 TO 3 Bus 3 BUS 2 Bus 2 GENERATOR 1 LOAD 1 TO 1 Bus 1 TO 4 Bus 4 BUS 3 LOAD 1 SWITCHED TO 1 TO 4 BUS TO TO TO 4 2 3 5 Bus 3 SHUNT Bus 1 Bus 4 Bus Bus Bus Bus 4 2 3 5 345.0 MW 141.16 100.00 1 -36.75 1 77.91 345.0 MW 363.00 200.00 1 37.18 1 125.86 345.0 MW 100.00 0.00 1 -76.92 1 -23.15 138.0 MW 1 -123.48 1 23.45 1 100.04 34.5 MW 100.00 1 -100.04 MVAR -14.21R 0.00 8.09 -22.30 MVAR 100.22R 100.00 -5.83 6.05 MVAR 15.00 81.33 27.55 38.71 MVAR 6.66 -37.11 30.44 MVAR 20.00 -19.92 MVA 141.9 100.0 37.6 81.0 MVA 376.6 223.6 37.6 126.0 MVA 101.1 81.3 81.7 45.1 MVA 123.7 43.9 104.6 MVA 102.0 102.0 % 1.0000 0.00 2 2

25 27 % 1.0000 3.51 1 Home

25 50 % 1.0083 -3.73 1 Home

27 23 % 0.9813 -2.33 1 Home 49 22 10 0.9625TA 0.0 % 0.9946 10 -7.99 0.0 1 Home

BUS 5 Bus 5 LOAD 1 TO 4 Bus 4

0.9625NT

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Linear Power Flow Analysis

Ignore bus Voltage Magnitude (only be concerned with bus phase angle) Ignore reactive power flows and loads (only be concerned with MW flow) Ignore transmission line resistance and charging capacitance Accuracy suffers!

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Linear Power Flow Equation

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How does power flow?

Flow from production point to purchase point uses every transmission path available Flow on each intermediate transmission facility is determined by its impedance

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Power Transfer Distribution Factors (PTDFs)

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Line Outage Distribution Factors (LODFs)

PTDFs and LODFs can be combined to calculate the resulting post contingency flow with a large transaction.
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Load Flow Problem

Load flow calculations are used to determine the voltage, current, and real and reactive power at various points in a power system under normal steady-state conditions. For power systems with a large number of buses, the load flow problem becomes computationally intensive. Therefore, for large power systems, the load flow is solved using specific programs based on iterative techniques, such as the Newton-Raphson method. Power systems of smaller size, however, require considerably less computational effort, and load flow algorithms can be developed which function easily on personal computers.
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Load Flow Problem The approach used here for solving the load flow is based on the Newton-Raphson iterative method. The required input to the problem is the generated and load power at each bus and the voltage magnitude on generating buses. This information is acquired from load data and the normal system operating conditions. The solution provides the voltage magnitude and phase angle at all buses and the power flows and losses of the transmission lines.

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Load Flow Problem

For load flow calculations, the system buses are classified into three types:

The slack bus: There is only one such bus in the system. Due to losses in the network, the real and reactive power cannot be known at all buses. Therefore, the slack bus will provide the necessary power to maintain the power balance in the system. The slack bus is usually a bus where generation is available. For this bus, the voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified (normally the voltage phase angle is set to zero degrees). The voltage phase angle of all other buses is expressed with the slack bus voltage phasor as reference.

The generating or PV-bus: This bus type represents the generating stations of the system. The information known for PV-buses is the net real power generation and bus-voltage magnitude. The net real power generation is the generated real power minus the real power of any local load. The load or PQ-bus: For these buses, the net real and reactive power is known. PQ-buses normally do not have generators. However, if the reactive power of a generator reaches its limit, the corresponding bus is treated as a PQ-bus. This is equivalent to adjusting the bus voltage until the generator reactive power falls within the prescribed limits.

Distribution substations and feeders may be treated as generating buses in distribution networks.
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Load Flow Problem

The load flow equations are written in terms of the net power injection to each bus. With reference to figure below, the net power injection into the kth bus is the combination of generated and load power. The power flowing out of this bus must equal the net injected power. Therefore, the power balance equation at the kth bus is written as follows in terms of the system voltage

where N is the number of network buses, Pk is the net real power injected into the kth bus, Qk is the net reactive power injected into the kth bus, Yk,i is the total admittance between bus k and i: this total can be found from the bus admittance matrix, Ybus, of the system, Vi is the voltage of the ith bus.
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Load Flow Problem

where qk,n is the angle of the admittance, Yk,n, and j is the voltage phase angle at bus, j. A real power equation is written for every PV- and PQ-bus and a reactive power equation is written for every PQ-bus. Thus, for a power system with N buses of which L are PQ-buses there are (N-1) real power equations (excluding the slack bus) and L reactive power equations (a total of N-1+L equations). The unknowns are the magnitude and phase angle of the L PQ-bus voltages and the phase angle of the (N-1-L) PV-bus voltages (a total of N1+L unknowns).

The left-hand side of these equations are known and an iterative process is used for finding the unknown voltages and phase angles such the above equations are balanced.

157

Load Flow Problem

The Newton-Raphson method provides a reliable approach for solving non-linear equations such as the previous equations. The main advantages of this method are its convergence characteristics and its speed. The procedure for applying the Newton-Raphson method is as follows: From the network configuration and parameters the bus-admittance matrix is constructed. The elements of this matrix are used to calculate the power flows according to the equations. Each network bus is assigned a type and, accordingly, information about the bus real and reactive power and bus voltage is collected. From the above steps, the load flow equations can be assembled into the following form, with reference to previous equations:

where P is the vector of the known net real power injections at PV- and PQ-buses, Q is the vector of the known reactive power injections at PQ-buses, V is the vector of the unknown bus voltage magnitudes, is the vector of the unknown bus voltage phase angles, and fp, fq are functions defined according to Equations (3.1.2).
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Load Flow Problem

Solution of the load flow problem requires finding the values of V and such that the righthand side of the equation equals the known power injections at the network buses. For any estimation of V and , the difference between the known power injections, P and Q and the power injections calculated by the equation is called the power mismatch.
where DS is the net real and reactive power mismatch:

The power mismatch is a measure of how close to the solution the estimations of V and are. A correction to these estimations is obtained using the Newton-Raphson method, resulting in an iterative calculation process.

where the superscript, j, denotes variables calculated at the jth iteration step. J is the Jacobian matrix of the equations:

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The iteration process continues until the power mismatch at the jth step is smaller than a preset number e.

To start the above iterative solution, an estimation of the unknown voltages and their phase angles is required. This first solution approximation is called initial guess. Typically, the initial guess for the voltage magnitudes is 1 pu and for their phase angles is 0 degrees (or radians).

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