The human body has 206 bones.

The
parts of a human skeleton may be
grouped as follows:
. Axial Skeleton
1. Skull
2. Backbone
3. Rib cage
. Appendicular Skeleton
1. Bones of the forelimbs
2. Shoulder girdle
3. Bones of the hind limbs
4. Pelvic girdle
Forms long axis of
the body
The axial skeleton
consist of the 80
bones in the head
and trunk of the
human body. t is
composed of five
parts: the human
skull, the ossicles of
the inner ear, the
hyoid bone of the
throat, the chest and
the vertebral
column.
These bones are
involved in
protection, support,
and carrying other
body parts.
Skull protect the brain
The Vertebral Column (Spinal Column) supports the head and
encloses the spinal cord.
The spinal column is comprised of 26 individual bones, these
bones are referred to as vertebrae. The spinal column is
divided into 5 different areas containing groups of vertebrae
and are grouped as follows:
7 cervical vertebrae in the neck.
12 thoracic vertebrae in the upper back corresponding to each
pair of ribs.
5 lumbar vertebrae in the lower back.
5 sacral vertebrae which are fused together to form 1 bone
called the sacrum.
4 coccygeal vertebrae that are fused together to form the
coccyx or tailbone.
Cervical vertebrae
Thoracic vertebrae
Lumbar vertebrae
Sacrum and coccyx
Ribcage
Ribcage: set of bones including the dorsal
vertebrae, the ribs and the sternum, that
encloses the heart and lungs of vertebrates.
55endicuIar skeIeton
t is important to realize that through
anatomical variation it is common for
the skeleton to have many extra bones
(sutural bones in the skull, cervical ribs,
lumbar ribs and even extra lumbar
vertebrae)
The appendicular skeleton of 126 bones
and the of 80 bones
together form the complete of
206 bones in the human body. Unlike
the axial skeleton, the appendicular
skeleton is unfused. This allows for a
much greater range of motion.
Bones of the pectoral girdle
umerus
0Iaa aad radier
Hand bones
oxaI bone
The lower limb
eg bone can refer to one of the
foIIowing:
- the thigh bone
- the knee ca5
- the Iarger of the two Ieg bones
Iocated beIow the knee ca5
- the smaIIer of the two Ieg
bones Iocated beIow the knee ca5
Femur
Patela
Tibia and fibula
Joints
joint is a 5Iace where one bone meets
another bone. Joints are a major 5art of
the skeIetaI system. There are many
joints, some of which aIIow no movement,
some aIIow minor movement, and some
aIIow free movement.
The immovabIe joints are caIIed
synarthroses, or fibrous joints. They are
firm in their 5osition to 5revent gIiding or
sIiding. There are three major grou5s of
this joint. First there are sutures, Iike the
joints between the bones of the skuII.
Next, there are syndesmoses, Iike the
membrane that sketches in between tibia
and fibuIa in human beings. FinaIIy, there
is gom5hosis which are the joints
between the teeth and sockets that hoId
them.
Fibrous joints
Types of joints:
Fibrous joints
Fibrous (synarthrodial): This type of joint is held together by only a
ligament. Examples are where the teeth are held to their bony
sockets and at both the radioulnar and tibiofibular joints.
Cartilagenous
artiIagenous (synchondroses and sympheses): These joints occur
where the connection between the articulating bones is made up of
cartilage for example between vertebrae in the spine.
Synchondroses are temporary joints which are only present in children,
up until the end of puberty. For example the in long
bones. Symphesis joints are permanant cartilagenous joints, for
example the pubic symphesis.
Synovial Joints
Synovial (diarthrosis): Synovial joints are by
far the most common classification of joint
within the human body. They are highly
moveable and all have a synovial capsule
(collagenous structure) surrounding the
entire joint, a synovial membrane (the inner
layer of the capsule) which secretes synovial
fluid (a lubricating liquid) and cartilage known
as hyaline cartilage which pads the ends of
the articulating bones. There are 6 types of
synovial joints which are classified by the
shape of the joint and the movement
available.
Osteoporosis C:Iecpcrc:i: i: c ci:ec:e
re:u|Iing in Ihe |c:: cf Lcne
Ii::ue. ln c:Iecpcrc:i:, Ihe
ccnce||cu: Lcne |c:e: cc|cium,
Leccme: Ihinner, cnc mcy
ci:cppecr c|IcgeIher.
A stooped back is often the
result of osteoporosis.
CURE
Building strong bones during childhood and
adolescence is the best defense against getting
osteoporosis later.
Alternative ways to prevent it:
Taking caIcium
Taking vitamin D
Eating a healthy diet
Exercising
Not smoking
Drinking in moderation
Making your home safe
Taking certain medications
Scurvy
Scurvy is a disease caused by lack of
ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in the diet. f a
person does not get enough vitamin C, any
wound he or she might have heals poorly. The
person also bruises easily. The mouth and
gums become sore. The gums bleed, and the
teeth may become loose. Patients lose their
appetite, their joints become sore, and they
become restless.
SYMPTOMS
Cure
Eat foods which is rich in Vitamin C [
orange or lemons]
Scoliosis
Scoliosis is a side-to-side curve of
the spine. This condition becomes
apparent during adolescence. t is
unknown why Scoliosis affects
more girls than boys.
Cure
Treatment of scoliosis is based on the
severity of the curve and the chances of
the curve getting worse.
The symptoms can be lessened with
physical therapy, massage, and exercises,
including yoga. [ t depends with the
severity]
Surgery involves correcting the curve back
to as close to normal as possible.
Kyphosis
Kyphosis,[(Greek - kyphos, a hump), also
called roundback or Kelso's hunchback]
also called hunchback is a forward
bending of the spine. Kyphosis is caused
by any condition that deforms the bones of
the upper part of the spine so that the
person is bent forward. Diseases that
cause kyphosis include tuberculosis,
syphilis, and rheumatoid arthritis.
Kyphosis
Cure
Consult your doctor. The structural and
stern postural kyphosis necessitates some
advanced levels of medical involvement.
For patients 16 and younger, belts are
generally recommended and can set right
the problem most of the times
Engage in exercises or physical treatment.
Poliomyelitis
Poliomyelitis, also called polio, is a serious
infection caused by a virus. A polio virus
may attack the nerve cells of the brain and
spinal cord, causing paralysis. Some
patients show only mild symptoms, such
as fever, headache, sore throat, and
vomiting. Symptoms may disappear after
about a day.
Poliovirus, was identified
in 1908 by Karl
Landsteiner.
Cure
!hysiothera5y is carried out to regain
mobility for muscles in case of paralysis.f
the patient encounters breathing
difficulty, mechanicaI breathing through
tracheostomy tubes or artificial ventilator
facilitates breathing.
Two polio vaccines are used
throughout the world to
combat poliomyelitis (or
polio). The first was
developed by Jonas Salk and
first tested in 1952.
An oral vaccine was
developed by Albert
Sabin using attenuated
poliovirus.
Cure
Supplying the body with nutrients that
promote bone regeneration, thus bringing
about faster healing from fractures.
Using advanced Biotech techniques, to
coax your bones into optimal functioning
Providing your body with vitamins and
minerals that strengthen your bones, to
prevent easy injuries
Sprains
A sprain is an injury to a ligament or to the
tissue that covers a joint. Most sprains
result from a sudden wrench that stretches
or tears the tissues of the ligaments. A
sprain is usually extremely painful. The
injured part often swells and turns black
and blue.
CURE: RCE
Rest: The sprain should be rested. No
additional force should be applied on site of
the sprain.
Ice: ce should be applied immediately to the
sprain to reduce swelling and pain.
om5ression: Dressings, bandages, or ace-
wraps should be used to immobilize the
sprain and provide support.
EIevate: Keeping the sprained joint elevated
(in relation to the rest of the body) will also
help to minimize swelling
Facts and Articles
!ostmeno5ausaIwomenare es5eciaIIy 5rone
to osteo5orosis because they Iack estrogen.
Most women know this and begin to
takecaIcium su55Iementsto ward off the
debiIitating disease. aIciumsu55Iementsare
im5ortant, but according to Kathy Keeton's
book,Longevity, they are not enough. Not
onIy does yourbodyneed magnesium and
othernutrientsto assimiIate caIcium into
yourbones, it aIso needs strengthtrainingto
retain caIcium. Keeton quotes nutritionaI
biochemist Dr. NeiI S. Orenstein: "Without
consideration of these effects, no amount
ofcaIciumsu55Iementation wiII 5revent
osteo5orosis."
A little training goes a long way
Strength training does not mean that you
have to train for theOlympicsor tediously do
the same exercise over and over. According
to Healing Moves, a variety of exercises will
yield bone-building benefits: "Physical impact
and weight-bearing exercise stimulates bone
formation. Just as a muscle gets stronger
and bigger the more you use it, a bone
becomes stronger and denser when you
regularly place demands upon it.
Polio News
The Strategic dvisory Grou5 of
Ex5erts on immunization (SGE) is
meeting this week in Geneva,
SwitzerIand.
One new case was re5orted in the 5ast
week (W!' from Sokoto), bringing the
totaI number of cases for 20 to 42.
The most recent case had onset of
5araIysis on 2 October (W!' from
Katsina).
8one Structure
8ones are organs 1hus Lhey're composed of
mulLlple Llssue Lypes 8ones are composed of
8one Llssue (aka osseous Llssue)
llbrous connecLlve Llssue
CarLllage
vascular Llssue
LymphaLlc Llssue
Adlpose Llssue
nervous Llssue
W All bones conslsL of a
dense solld ouLer
layer known as
compacL bone and an
lnner layer of spongy
bone a honeycomb
of flaL needlellke
pro[ecLlons called
ttobecoloe
W 8one ls an exLremely
dynamlc Llssue!!!!
bove noLe Lhe relaLlonshlp bLwn Lhe
compacL and spongy bone
8elow Close up of spongy bone
noLe Lhe gross dlfferences beLween Lhe spongy bone and Lhe compacL bone ln Lhe
above phoLo
o yoo see tbe ttobecoloe?
Compare compacL and spongy bone as vlewed wlLh Lhe llghL mlcroscope
8one Structure
8one Llssue ls a Lype of
connecLlve Llssue so lL
musL conslsL of cells plus a
slgnlflcanL amounL of
exLracellular maLrlx
8one cells
1 CsLeoblasLs
8onebulldlng cells
SynLheslze and secreLe
collagen flbers and oLher
organlc componenLs of
bone maLrlx
lnlLlaLe Lhe process of
calclflcaLlon
lound ln boLh Lhe
perlosLeum and Lhe
endosLeum
@e b|ue arrows |nd|cate te osteob|asts
@e ye||ow arrows |nd|cate te bone
matr|x tey've [ust secreted
8one Structure
CsLeocyLes
,aLure bone cells
CsLeoblasLs LhaL have
become Lrapped by
Lhe secreLlon of
maLrlx
no longer secreLe
maLrlx
8esponslble for
malnLalnlng Lhe bone
Llssue
?ellow arrows lndlcaLe
osLeocyLes noLlce
how Lhey are
surrounded by Lhe
plnklsh bone maLrlx
8lue arrow shows an
osLeoblasL ln Lhe
process of becomlng
an osLeocyLe
Cn Lhe rlghL noLlce how Lhe osLeocyLe
ls Lrapped" wlLhln Lhe plnk maLrlx
CsLeoclasLs
Huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50 monocytes (a
type of white blood cell).
Cells that digest bone matrix this process is called bone resorption
and is part of normal bone growth, development, maintenance, and
repair.
Concentrated in the endosteum.
On the side of the cell that faces the bone surface, the PM is deeply
folded into a ruffled border. Here, the osteoclast secretes digestive
enzymes (how might this occur?) to digest the bone matrix. t also
pumps out hydrogen ions (how might this occur?) to create an acid
environment that eats away at the matrix. What advantage might a
ruffled border confer?
Why do we want a cell that eats away at bone? (Hint: bone is a very
Were we see a cartoon sow|ng a|| 3 ce|| types Csteob|asts and osteoc|asts are |nd|cated
WNote te s|ze of te osteoc|ast (compare |t to te osteob|ast) and note te ruff|ed border
WWy |s tere a depress|on underneat te osteoc|ast?
WWat |s te name of te t|rd ce|| type sown ere?
WWat do you t|nk te tan mater|a| represents?
8one Structure
8one ,aLrlx
ConslsLs of organlc and lnorganlc
componenLs
1/ organlc and / lnorganlc by
welghL
Crganlc componenL conslsLs of several
maLerlals LhaL are secreLed by Lhe
osLeoblasLs
Collagen flbers and oLher organlc maLerlals
1hese (parLlcularly Lhe collagen) provlde
Lhe bone wlLh reslllence and Lhe ablllLy
Lo reslsL sLreLchlng and LwlsLlng
W lnorganlc componenL
of bone maLrlx
Consists mainly of 2
salts: calcium
phosphate and
calcium hydroxide.
These 2 salts
interact to form a
compound called
hydroxyapatite.
Bone also contains
smaller amounts of
magnesium,
fluoride, and
sodium.
These minerals give
bone its
characteristic
hardness and the
ability to resist
compression.
@reed|mens|ona| array of
co||agen mo|ecu|es @e rod
saped mo|ecu|es ||e |n a
staggered arrangement w|c
acts as a temp|ate for bone
m|nera||zat|on 8one m|nera| |s
|a|d down |n te gaps
noLe collagen flbers ln longlLudlnal cross secLlon
and how Lhey occupy space bLwn Lhe black bone
cells
1hls bone
a Pas been demlnerallzed
b Pas had lLs organlc componenL removed
!re5ared by: Grou5 4 - eart <3
Leader: Stephanie del Rosario
Asst. leader: Pauleen Costiniano
Baysa, Shiela May C.
Estrella, Patricia
Ann
Gonzales, Kathleen Rae E.
Mari, Peter Paul C.
Beltran, Elizalyn S.
Jacinto, Ephraim Ross B.
Turla, Justin Randall G.
Mrs. iIibeth M. Mayor