CH VI Tho

A Course of Physics
Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 1

CHAPTER VI
Theory of Relativity
§1. Relativity in classical mechanics

§2. Principles Einstein’s theory of relativity
§3. Lorentz Transformations and Consequences
§4. Momentum and energy of relativistic particles

● The theory of relativity is constructed by Einstein in 1905
(Albert Einstein 1879-1955)
● At Newton’s time (the 17-th century) scientists encounter only

objects moving at usual speeds people believed
completely on principles of Newton’s classical mechanics
● Afterward, especially at the last half of 19-th century, physics
developed intensively, many new objects were discovered:
electromagnetic waves, light, atomic and sub-atomic
particles,…
motions at very high speeds seem to be inconsistent to
principles of Newtonian mechanics

● To understand these disagreements physics needs new
principles, new theories…
● Note that the laws of Newtonian mechanics are not wrong,

they are only incomplete. A new theory must incorporte
Newtonian mechanics as a limit case

§1. Relativity in classical mechanics
● To understand the Einstein’s theory of relativity let us review
what is the “relativity”?
● “Relativity” is an impotant concept in describing motions, even
in the classical mechanics!
1.1 Space and time in classical mechanics:

● It is well known that for describing motions we need a
reference frame and a system of coordinates. Space
coordinates (x,y,z) of material point depend on the reference
frame
we say that the space is “relative”
● But the time is not relative, or in other words,
the time is “absolute” in classical mechanics.
It means that the time t is the same in all reference frames.
Moreover, time interval (∆t) is absolute also (independing to
reference frames).

● The interaction between bodies is carried instantanously, that
is the interaction propagates with the speed ∞.
1.2 The Galilean transformations:

● How can relate the coordinats (x,y,z) of material point in the
inertial reference frame (IRF) K and the coordinats (x’,y’,z’ ) in
another IRF K’
y y’
K’
K P
O O’ V
x x x’
V.t x’
z z’

Relations between the coordinates in two IRF:
x = x’ + V.t
y = y’
z = z’
t = t’
These relations are called Galilean transformations

Note that time t is the same for all IRF!
Taking the derivative with respect to t we have
vx = vx’ + V
vy = vy’
v = v’ + V
vz = vz’
This is the Galilean rule of addition of velocities

● It is obvious that the Galilean rule of addition of velocities is
only applicable at speeds which are not very high
● Applying to the speed of light in vacuum
c = c’ + V ??? fundamental problem!
● There are theoretical and experimental evidences for the

constancy of velocity of light:
 The Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism found that the
velocity of light, as well as e-m waves, is a fundamental
constant of nature and independing to the reference frame
in which the theory is formulated:
c = 299,792,458 ≈ 3.0 Х 10 8 m / s
 The important experiment of Michelson (Albert Michelson,
1852-1931) and Morley (Edward Moley, 1828-1923) found
no diference between the values of c measured in two
directions which are parallel to and perpendicular to the
Eath’s motion

1.3 Relativity in classical mechanics:
● Remember that
 The formulation of Newton’s laws does not depend on the

choice of inertial reference frame (IRF).
In other words, there is no single IRF that is preferred over
all others
 With the Galilean transformations equations of dynamics
are written in IRF K and IRF K’ have the same form
● The relativity in classical mechanics means that: ”The laws of
mechanics have the same form in every inertial reference
frame”
● The Galilean transformations manifest only relativity in space
relations, but not in time relations. Time and time interval are
not transformed in transition from an IRF to another
In the respect of relativity, space and time are not in the
same footing

§2. Principles of Einstein’s theory of relativity:
● Einstein pointed out that the above contradictions can be

understood, if we make drastic revisions in classical concepts
of space and time
● To construct a new theory, he introduced two postulates:
2.1 Einstein’s postulates:
2.1.1 Postulate 1: “The laws of physics have the same form in
every inertial reference frame”

Remarks:
This postulate does not contradict with the concept of
relativity in classical mechanics
Einstein made only a generalization:
“the laws of mechanics” “the laws of physics”

2.1.2 Postulate 2: “The speed of light in vacuum is the same
in all inertial reference frame and is

independent of the motion of the source”
Remark:
With this postulate it is obvious that the Galilean rule of
addition of velocities is not applicable for the propagation of
light
we must find out another rule (we will see it is the
Lorentz transformations)
This postulate leads to many other consequences which

require serious changes in our fundamental conceptions of
space, time and motion

The theory of space, time and motions, based on these two
postulates, is called the
“SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY” (SR)
Why did we say “special”?

● When we restricts our consideration in physical phenomena in
inertial reference frames the theory is called special theory of
relativity
● When we like investigate physial phenomena in the scope of
the whole Universe, the concept of inertial reference frame is
not enough. Because of the gravitation between planets or stars
we must deal with also non-inertial reference frames
In the global framework of the whole Universe we need

another more general theory, the
“GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY” (GR)

2.2 Relativity of simultaneity:
One of the direct consequences of the Einstein’s postulates
is the relativity of simultaneity, that means
“two events that are simultaneous in one IRF

are not simultaneous in the second IRF”
To understand it, let us consider two IRF K and K’ , and K’ is

moving with respect to K with the relative velocity V
Event 1: the receiver A catchs a light signal from the light source
Event 2: the receiver B catchs the same light signal
The light source is laid at the origin O’ of the IRF K’

V
y y’
K
K’
A O’ B
O
Receiver Source Receiver x x’
z z’
Supose that the source and the receivers are fixed at rest in K’, and
AO’ = O’B
For observers who stand in K’ :

the event 1 and the event 2 are simultaneous
For observers who stand in K:
Since the light signal propagates with the speed c in any direction,
so the receiver A catchs the signal ealiear than the receiver B does
the event 1 and the event 2 are not simultaneous in K
§3. Lorentz Transformations and Consequences:
We have seen that the Galilean transformations of coordinates

and velocities are not consistent with the postulates of Einstein’s
theory of relativity
have to find another rule of transformations
3.1 Derivation of the Lorentz transformation:

3.1.1 Four-dimentional coordinates and interval:
Since time is not the same in different IRF’s, we must regard
time as a coordinate in describing motions. So, together the
three x,y,z-axes we must add the fourth axis, t-axis:
K {x, y, z, t}
K’ {x’, y’, z’, t’}
t changes when we transit from IRF to another
How can find the relations between {x, y, z, t} and {x’, y’, z’, t’} ?

● Suppose that in IRF K:
at the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and the moment t1 a light signal is sent
the signal moves to the point (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and the moment t2
We have:
(x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2 + (z2 - z1)2 = c2 (t2 - t1)2

or
(x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2 + (z2 - z1)2 - c2 (t2 - t1)2 = 0
● Observe the above propagation of light in IRF K’ :

Since in any IRF the speed of light is c, so in K’ we have the
same formula:
(x’2 – x’1)2 + (y’2 – y’1)2 + (z’2 – z’1)2 - c2 (t’2 – t’1)2 = 0

● Introducing the quantity s which is defined by the expression
s2 = (x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2 + (z2 - z1)2 - c2 (t2 - t1)2
= l122 - c2 (t2 - t1)2
we see that
 If the quantity s equals 0 in one IRF it equals 0 also in
every other IRF. In other words, s is invariant when we
change from an IRF to other IRF
 s has the same dimension with distance l12 and can be
regared as four-dimentional analogue of three-dimensional
distance
 The quantity s is called interval.
The Lorentz transformations are found in the base of

the condition of invariance of interval.

3.1.2 Derivation of the Lorentz transformations:
We will find the relations between {x, y, z, t} and {x’, y’, z’, t’}
● Without loss of generality we direct x- and x’-axes to the
direction of the relative velocity vector V we have
y = y’ , z = z’
● Then we find the transformations of x and t in the following
form:
x = x’. chψ + ct’.shψ
ct = x’. shψ + ct’.chψ
It is easy to test c2t 2 - x2 = c2t’ 2 - x’ 2 the transformation
satisfies the condition of invariance of interval.
Applying this transformation to the motion of the point O’ (the
origin of K’ ) we obtain x = ct’.shψ; ct = ct’.chψ (x’ = 0)
To divide the first by the second eq.: x / ct = thψ = V / c

V
From the formula thψ = we obtain
c
(V / c) 1
shψ = chψ =
1 − (V / c) 2 1 − (V / c) 2
x' + Vt '
x= y = y' z = z'
1 − (V / c) 2
V
t' + 2
x'
t= c
1 − (V / c) 2
This is the Lorentz transformations

3.1.3 Remark on the Lorentz transformations:
● We have had the formulae which transform from the
coordinates {x’, y’, z’, t’} to {x, y, z, t}
The transformations which transform from the coordinates
{x, y, z, t} to {x’, y’, z’, t’} can be easly obtained by the
substitution
V -V
● In compairing with the Galilean transformations:
 In the Galilean transformations the time t does not

transform, but in the Lorentz transformations we have the
rule for transformation of t
 If in the Lorentz transformations we set c → ∞ we will
come back to the Galilean transformations
We can regard the Galilean transformations as a limit
case of the Lorentz transformations when
c→∞ or (V / c) → 0

3.2 Consequences of Lorentz transformations:
3.2.1 Relativity of time interval:

We have discussed before on the relativity of simultaneity. By
using the Lorentz transformations we can derive also the relativity
of time interval.
As before let’s consider two IRF’s K and K’ and recall that the
velocity of K’ relative to K is V.
Observer in K’ Observer in K
at x’ y’ z’ and
Event 1 takes place at the moment t1
at the moment t’1
at the same place
Event 2 and at the moment t’ takes place at the moment t2
2

● Supose that we stand in the IRF K’ and look at the clock which
is fixed in K’ :
the time interval in K’ is ∆t0 = t’2 - t’1
(the subsript 0 means time interval counted by the clock
which is at rest)
● But for the clock in the IRF K :
the time interval between two events ∆t = t2 - t1
we can say t is the time shown by the moving clock
● Applying the Lorentz transformations we have
V V
t1' +2
x' t 2' +
x'
t1 = c c 2
t2 =
1 − (V / c) 2 1 − (V / c) 2
∆t0
t 2 − t1 = ∆t = > ∆t0
1 − (V / c) 2

Supose that K is the laboratory frame, and K’ is the rocket frame.
So the time interval in the laboratory frame is longer than the time
interval in the rocket frame
This phenomenon is called time dilation
For observers in laboratory, the watchs of cosmonauts in the
spaceship run slower than the watchs in laboratory.
t’
K’
t
K (lab.)

3.2.2 Relativity of length:
Consider a ruler which is strapped to a rocket
the length of the ruler in the laboratory frame
l = x2 - x1
its length in the rocket frame
l’ = x’2 - x’1
If in the laboratory frame we measure the coordinates
x2 and x1 at the same instant, so t2 = t1 = t
x2 − Vt x1 − Vt x2 − x1
x'2 − x'1 = − =
1 − (V / c) 2
1 − (V / c) 2
1 − (V / c) 2
∆x
∆ x' = l = l ' 1 − (V / c) 2
1 − (V / c) 2

● The meaning of this formula is that
“The length of the ruler observed in the frame in which the ruler is
moving ( l - in the laboratory frame) is less than its length as
measured in the frame in which the ruler is at rest (l’ - in the
rocket frame)”
Shortly,if we stand in the laboratory, we observe that “there is a
length contraction when a body is moving”.
This effect is known as the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction.
● Note that in our choice of system of coordinates, y = y’, z = z’
there is no contraction in directions which are
perpendicular to the direction in which the object is moving. So
the picture of net effect is as follows

3.3 Relativistic transformations of velocity:
● From the Lorentz transformations of coordinates, we can find

the transformations for velocities.
Differentiating the formulae of the Lorentz transformations we
have
dx' + Vdt ' dy = dy '

dx = dz =dz '
1 − (V / c) 2
V
dt' +
2
dx '
dt = c
1 −(V / c ) 2

Recall that the components of the velocity vector are as follows
dx dy
vx = , vy = ,...
dt dt
we have
v x '+V
vx =
v 'V
1+ x 2
c
V2 V2
v y ' 1− 2 vz ' 1− 2
vy = c c
v 'V vz =
1+ x 2 v 'V
1+ x 2
c c

● These formulae are the transformations of velocity in the theory
of relativity
● It is easy to find that at the limit c → ∞ or (v / c) → 0
these formulae reduce to the Galilean rule of addition of
velocities.
● For the case when the motion of particle is paralell to x-axis, we
have
vx = v, vx = vx = 0 v’y = v’z = 0, v’x = v’
v'+V
v =
v 'V
1+ 2
c
By this rule we see that the velocity of a particle cannot exceed
the velocity of light in vacuum c in any frame

● Example:
Suppose that a particle which is moving with the velocity v’ =
0.9 c in a frame which, in turn, is moving with the velocity V =
0.9 c.
 By the Galilean rule: v = 1.8 c
 By the relativistic rule:
0.9c + 0.9c
v= 2
= 0.995c
( 0. 9c )
1+
c2
The velocity of propagation of light and electromagnetic waves

in vacuum is equal to c in any IR frame: giving v’ = c we have
c +V
v= =c
cV
1+ 2
c

§4. Momentum and energy of relativistic particles:
4.1 Redefinitions of momentum and energy:

● The theory of relativity changes many old conceptions on
space, time and motion. So such concepts as momentum,
energy and mass must have redefinitions.
● In this course we won’t derive deductively formulae. We give
only results and discuss them.
4.1.1 Relativistic momentum:

Let’s consider a particle which has the mass m when it is at
rest.
We call m the rest mass of particle.
When such a particle has velocity v its relativistic momentum is
defined by the following formulae:


 mv
p=
v2
1− 2
c
Note that these definitions don’t invalidate the Newtonian

definitions, they are rather an extension into the cases of high
velocities. It is easy to find that in the limit case of low velocities
 
v << c p→mv
The derivation of momentum with respect to time is the force

which acts on the particle
 dp    
d mv
f = =  
dt dt  1 - (v / c ) 
2 2
 

Let’s consider two cases:
• The velocity vector changes only the dierction, that is, the force is
perpendicular to velocity. In this case we have
 
dp m dv
=
dt 1 −( v 2 / c 2 ) dt
• The velocity vector changes only the magnitude, that is, the force is
directs along to velocity. In this case
 
dp m dv
=
dt [1 −( v 2 / c 2 )]3 / 2 dt

4.1.2 Relativistic energy:
● The expression of energy in the theory of relativity is following
mc 2
E =
v2
1− 2
c
● It is a very importal formula and has many consequences which

differ seriously from old conceptions on energy:
 A particle which at rest has non-zero energy E =mc 2
This amount is called the rest energy of particle.
 At low velocity v << c
2
mv
E →mc 2 +
2
The energy of particle equals the sum of the rest energy and
the kinetic energy according to the classical mechanics.

4.2 Relations of momentum and energy:
● From the expressions of relativistic momentum and energy it is

not difficult to find that
E2
2
= p 2
+ m 2 2
c
c
 This is the relation between momentum and energy in the

theory of relativity. The expression of E as a funtion of p is
as follows
E = c p 2 + m 2c 2
 For particles at slow speeds v << c we have

p2
E ≈ mc + 2
2m

● We can write also the relation between momentum, energy
and velocity of a free particle

 Ev
p= 2
c
● For the case of photon (light particle) in vacuum, v = c , the
relation is as follows
E
p=
c

4.3 Energy and momentum as components of 4-dimensional vector:
Here it is a short introduction to the mathematical formalism of 4-

dimensional space which is applied to the theory of relativity.
All the results of the theory of relativity can be deduced strictly
by using this formalism.
● You know that many physical quantities (position, velocity,

acceleration, force,…) are described by 3-dimensional vectors
r → ( x, y, z) v → ( vx, vy, vz) p → ( px, py, pz)
● In the theory of relativity, space and time is in the same footing

we can generalize from 3 to 4 coordinates of a reference frame.

Three-dimensional space Four-dimensional space
***** *****
● (x, y, z)  coordinates of ● (ct, x, y, z)  coordinates of
event
point
● l  distance ● s  interval
l2 = ∆x2 + ∆y2 + ∆z2 s2 = (c ∆t)2 - (∆x2 + ∆y2 + ∆z2 )
(3D-distance) (4D-distance)
● distance l is invariant under ● interval s is invariant under

rotations of coordinate system the Lorentz transformations
(under 3D-rotations) (under 4D-rotations)
● Geometry is Euclidean: ● Geometry is pseudo-Euclidean:

signs in the expression of signs in the expression of
3D-distance are (+ + +) 4D-distance are (+ – – – )

Three-dimensional space Four-dimensional space
***** *****
● 3-D radius-vector ● 4-D radius-vector
r = (x, y, z) X = ( (ct), x, y, z)
● Time t is scalar, and is ● Time t is the fourth component of

invariant (remains unchanged) 4D-radius vector, and is transformed
under the Lorentz transformations
in 3D-rotations (4D-rotations)
● 3-D momentum vector ● 4-D momentum vector

p = ( px , py , pz ) P = ( (E/c), px , py , pz )
● Energy E is the fourth component of
● Energy E is scalar, and is 4D-momentum vector, and is
invariant (remains unchanged) transformed under the Lorentz
in 3D-rotations transformations (4D-rotations)

Under the Lorentz transformations (E/c) tranforms as (ct) ,
(px , py , pz) transform as (x, y, z) :
x' + Vt '
x= y = y' z = z'
1 − (V / c) 2
V
t' +2
x'
t= c
1 − (V / c) 2
V
p x' + 2 E '
px = c py = py ' pz = pz '
1 − (V / c) 2
E' + Vp x '
E=
1 − (V / c) 2

● In the theory of relativity, time is not absolute, it is transformed
from IR frame to another IR frame
● Energy of particle is transformed also from one IR frame to
another iR frame
● About the geometry:

 Geometry of 3-D space is Euclidean
 Geometry of 4-D space is pseudo-Euclidean
● Eucidean and pseudo-Euclidean spaces are still flat spaces.

In the theory of General Relativity, we must work with non-
inertial reference frames. It leads to spaces which are not flat
curved spaces.
Geometry of curved spaces is Riemannian geometry.

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A Course of Physics

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 1

§1. Relativity in classical mechanics

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 2

● At Newton’s time (the 17-th century) scientists encounter only

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 3

● Note that the laws of Newtonian mechanics are not wrong,

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 4

1.1 Space and time in classical mechanics:

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 5

1.2 The Galilean transformations:

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 6

These relations are called Galilean transformations

Taking the derivative with respect to t we have

This is the Galilean rule of addition of velocities

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 7

● Applying to the speed of light in vacuum

c = c’ + V ??? fundamental problem!

● There are theoretical and experimental evidences for the

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 8

 The formulation of Newton’s laws does not depend on the

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 9

● Einstein pointed out that the above contradictions can be

2.1 Einstein’s postulates:

2.1.1 Postulate 1: “The laws of physics have the same form in

every inertial reference frame”

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 10

in all inertial reference frame and is

This postulate leads to many other consequences which

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 11

Why did we say “special”?

In the global framework of the whole Universe we need

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 12

“two events that are simultaneous in one IRF

To understand it, let us consider two IRF K and K’ , and K’ is

The light source is laid at the origin O’ of the IRF K’

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 13

For observers who stand in K’ :

We have seen that the Galilean transformations of coordinates

3.1 Derivation of the Lorentz transformation:

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 15

(x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2 + (z2 - z1)2 = c2 (t2 - t1)2

● Observe the above propagation of light in IRF K’ :

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 16

s2 = (x2 - x1)2 + (y2 - y1)2 + (z2 - z1)2 - c2 (t2 - t1)2

= l122 - c2 (t2 - t1)2

The Lorentz transformations are found in the base of

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 17

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 18

This is the Lorentz transformations

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 19

 In the Galilean transformations the time t does not

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 20

3.2.1 Relativity of time interval:

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 21

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 22

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 23

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 24

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 25

● From the Lorentz transformations of coordinates, we can find

dx' + Vdt ' dy = dy '

Physics 211: Lecture 1, Pg 26