Lecture_3

Energy Transfer by
Heat, Work, and Mass
Processes
Process line, or path
State 1
State 2
P
1

P
3

P
2

Interactions
Ma
System
f(P
k
, k =1...N)=0
Surroundings
Mass Flow
Mass Flow
Work
Heat
Mechanical work flow
Motor
Electrical Power
System
Boundary
Work Flow
The turning fan
represents the
result of a
mechanical work
transfer.
Energy Transfer
Energy transfer to/from closed systems
Heat (Q)
Work (W)

Energy transfer to/from open systems (control
volumes)
Heat (Q)
Work (W)
Mass flow


) ( u m
3-1
FIGURE 3-9
Specifying the
directions of
heat and work.
Heat
Heat (Q) is the transfer of energy due to a
temperature difference
a system w/o heat transfer is an adiabatic system
SI units: kJ
Heat rate, (kJ/s or kW)
Heat per unit mass, q = Q/m
Sign convention:
Q > 0: heat transferred to system from surroundings
Q < 0: heat transferred from system to surroundings
Q

Heat Transfer Modes

Conduction
transfer of heat through a material due to random molecular
or atomic motion; most important in solids
Radiation
transfer of heat due to emission of electromagnetic waves,
usually between surfaces separated by a gas or vacuum
Convection
transfer of heat between a solid surface and fluid due to
combined mechanisms of i) fluid conduction at surface; ii)
fluid flow within boundary layer
Conduction Heat Transfer
Fouriers law of conduction:


dx
dT
kA Q
cond
=

Convection Heat Transfer

Newtons law of cooling, or convection:

) (
f s conv
T T hA Q =

Radiation Heat Transfer

Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation (between a
small surface A of emissivity c and large
surroundings):




( )
4 4
surr s rad
T T A Q = co

Work
Work (W) is the energy transfer associated with a
force acting through a distance:

Work rate or power

Work per unit mass, w = W/m
Sign convention
W > 0: work done by system on surroundings
W < 0: work done on system by surroundings
(kJ)
}
= s d F W
kW) or (kJ/s V = F W

Work
ds
dt
ds
ds
dV
m
dt
dV
m s d F = =
V d V V +
ds
s d F d W d
s
=
Work
| |
KE W
V V
m
m
s d F W
s
s
2 1 2 1
2
1
2
2
2 1
2
2
2
1

A = A
=
= = A
}
Work
m
g m
F
s
s d F d W d
s
=
Work
( )
PE KE
s s g m KE s d F
s
s
2 1 2 1
1 2
2 1
2
1

A + A =
+ A =
}
Types of Work
Moving boundary (compression/expansion) work
Shaft work
Spring work
Electrical work
Other forms; work associated with:
Acceleration
Gravity
Polarization
Magnetization
Solid deformation
Liquid film stretching
Moving Boundary Work
Associated with a volume change of a fluid system
(aka compression-expansion work)

}
} }
=
= =
2
1


2
1
2
1
PdV W
PAdx Fdx W
b
x
x
x
x
FIGURE 3-19
A gas does a
differential amount
of work oW
b
as it
forces the piston to
move by a
differential amount
ds.
3-3
FIGURE 3-20
The area under
the process
curve on a P-V
diagram
represents the
boundary work.
Moving Boundary Work, cont.
Expansion: dV > 0, W
b
> 0
Compression: dV < 0, W
b
< 0
Work processes on P-V diagram:





curves between area
) ( curve 1 - 2 under area
(-) curve 2 - 1 under area
exp
1
2
21 , exp
2
1
12 ,
= + =
+ = = =
= = =
}
}
W W W
PdV W W
PdV W W
comp cycle
b
b comp
Moving Boundary Work, cont.
Special cases:
1) if V = constant, W
b
= 0
2) if P = constant, W
b
= P(V
2
-V
1
)
3) if PV
n
= constant (known as a polytropic
process),





) 1 ( ln
) 1 (
1
1
2
1 1
1 1 2 2
= =
=

=
n
V
V
V P W
n
n
V P V P
W
b
b
3-4
FIGURE 3-22
The net work
done during a
cycle is the
difference
between the
work done by
the
system and the
work done on
the system.
Shaft Work
Associated with a rotating shaft

unit time) per s rev' ( 2
s) revolution of no. ( 2
then constant, if
torque) (
2
1
2
1
= T =
= T =
= T
= T T = =
} }
n n W
n n W
d Frd W
sh
sh
sh

t
t
u u
u
u
u
u
Spring Work
Associated with the extension or compression of a
spring; if spring is linear, then force obeys Hookes
law,


( )
2
1
2
2 2
1
2
1

and
constant) spring (
x x k
kxdx W
k kx F
sp
sp
=
=
= =
}
Electrical Work
Associated with the motion of electrons due to an
electromotive force

V
V
V V
I W
I t I
N
N s d E N
s d F W
e
e
=
= A =
= =
= =
=
}
}

current) (
voltage) (
charge) electric (
2
1
2
1
Evaluating work at a
boundary...
Note: P
gas
> P
ambient
Direction of Motion
x
X
p
ambient
The gas is the system for analysis.
Force balance at the boundary on the
piston, where the boundary deforms.
p
gas


) 0 , 0 , (
x
F F =
( )
c
ambient gas x
g
g
m
A p p F

=
X
P
ambient
P
gas

dx
The net force on
the piston.
Total work done
dx F W
x
= o
dx
g
g
m A p A p W
x
x
x
x
c
amb gas
} }
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
2
1
o
p
ambient
p
gas
> p
ambient
X
dx
g
g
m A p A p W
x
x
x
x
c
amb gas
} }
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
2
1
o

Component of work due

to expansion of the gas
Work to raise
the piston
Work of Expansion
}
= A
2
1
x
x
e
pAdx W
ambient gas
p p p
Work of Expansion: p-dV work
}
= A
2
1
V
V
e
pdV W
Adx dV = ) (V p p =
Evaluating a equilibrium expansion process
p
V = Ax
V
1
V
2

p
1

p
2

) (V p p =
Evaluating the work
Integral for
a quasistatic process
p
V = Ax
V
1
V
2

p
1

p
2

pAdx pdV W
e
= = o
Conservation of Mass
Mass can neither be created nor destroyed
mass and energy can be converted to each other
according to Einsteins E=mc
2
, but this effect is
negligible except for nuclear reactions)
For closed systems, this principle imposes m =
constant since mass cannot cross the system
boundary
For control volumes, the mass entering and
leaving the system may be different and must be
accounted for
Key concepts and terms
Equilibrium process
Kinetic energy
Path-dependent work
Quasistatic process
Work at a system boundary
Work transfer
Work of expansion

Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Mass flow rate: fluid mass conveyed per unit time
[kg/s]





where V
n
= velocity normal to area [m/s]
= fluid density [kg/m
3
]
A = cross-sectional area [m
2
]


}
=
A
n
dA m V

Mass and Volume Flow Rates, cont.

For most pipe flows, = constant and the average
velocity (V) is used:



Volume flow rate is given by




v
A
m
A m
ave
V
V
=
=

or

v
V
V m
A V

= =
=

then
V
) (V

Conservation of Mass Principle - Control

Volume
Net mass transfer during a process is equal to the
net change in total mass of the system during that
process


where i = inlet, e = exit, 1 = initial state, 2 = final state
in rate form:

In fluid mechanics, this is often referred to as the
continuity equation


=
system e i
m m m m ) (
1 2

=
dt
dm
m m
system
e i

FIGURE 3-48
Schematic for
flow work.
Steady-Flow Processes
Steady-flow or steady-state a condition where all
fluid and flow properties, heat rates, and work
rates do not change with time.
mathematically:



applied to mass balance:







( ) 0 =
dt
d
0 =
dt
dm
system
Steady-Flow Processes, cont.
Conservation of mass during a steady-flow process:


If control volume is single-stream (i.e., one inlet, one
exit), then


=
e i
m m
2
2 2
1
1 1
2 1
or

v
A V
v
A V
m m m
=
= =
Incompressible Flow
If = constant, then the mass flow is considered
incompressible
for steady-flow:


for single-stream, steady-flow:


=
e i
V V

2 2 1 1
2 1
or
V V A A
V V
=
=

Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid
A flowing fluid contains internal, kinetic, and
potential energies:


Fluid entering or leaving a control volume has an
additional form of energy known as flow energy,
which represents the work required to push the
fluid across a boundary:


gz u e
gz u m E
+ + =
+ + =
2
2
1
2
2
1
or , ) (
V
V
mPv PV W
flow
= = = energy flow
3-6
FIGURE 3-51
The total energy
consists of three parts
for a nonflowing fluid
and four parts for a
flowing fluid.
Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid, cont.
The total energy of a flowing fluid (on a unit-mass
basis, u) becomes



Using the definition of enthalpy (h),

Pv gz u + + + =
2
2
1
V u
gz h + + =
2
2
1
V u
Energy Transport by Mass
Amount of energy transport:



Rate of energy transport:

) (
2
2
1
gz h m m E
mass
+ + = = V u
) (
2
2
1
gz h m m E
mass
+ + = = V

u
FIGURE 3-58
The absorption of
radiation incident on
an opaque surface
of absorptivity o.
3-7